Jobs

Background

Work has obvious economic benefits, but having a job also helps individuals stay connected with society, build self-esteem and develop skills and competencies. Societies with high levels of employment are also richer, more politically stable and healthier.

Employment Rate

Across the OECD, nearly 66% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. Employment levels are highest in Iceland (79%), Switzerland (79%) and Norway (75%) and lowest in Turkey (48%), Greece (56%) and Hungary (56%). Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education. Across the OECD, an estimated 82% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 45% for those without an upper secondary education.

Despite a steady increase in female employment rates over the past 15 years, women are still less likely than men to have a job. In 2011, on average across OECD countries, 60% of women had jobs, compared with 72% of men. The gender difference is particularly high in Turkey and Mexico, and relatively small in Canada, Estonia and the Nordic countries. The increase in employment rates for women may be explained by cyclical factors but also by the provision of childcare facilities, which have made it easier for mothers with young children to return to work.

Long-term Unemployment Rate

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are currently not working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. Such effects can last a long time, even after a return to work. Across the OECD, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at 3.1%.

Creating more and better jobs is a major challenge for governments. About one in three people of working age does not have a job in the OECD area, including many out-of-school youth and disabled people. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment – 3.2% for men and 3.1% for women – but the female unemployment rate is particularly high in Greece, while in Ireland long-term unemployment is much greater among men. Faced with ageing populations and rising social expenditures, facilitating employment for those who can work has become a priority.

Recovery from the economic and financial crisis that began in 2008 has been weak or uneven, and some countries have fallen back into recession. The OECD-wide unemployment rate was 8 % in early 2013, corresponding to around 48 million people out of work – some 14 million more than when the crisis began. There are clear signs that job creation will continue to be weak in many OECD countries.

Average Earnings

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. Earnings represent the main source of income for most households. Analysing earnings may also suggest how fairly work is remunerated.

In the OECD on average, people earn 34 466 US dollars per year, but average earnings differ significantly across OECD countries. In the United States and Luxembourg, average earnings are more than twice as high as in the Eastern European countries. How fairly these earnings are distributed within a country is another question. In recent years, earning disparities have increased in most OECD countries and whereas on average the top 20% of the population earn 47 324 USD per year, the bottom 20% live on 22 240 USD per year.

Job security

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts often face a higher risk of job losses than permanent workers and are therefore more vulnerable, especially in countries with smaller social safety nets.

On average in 30 OECD countries, employees with contracts of six months or less, represent more than 10% of total employees. In Mexico, Korea and Turkey, this type of contract concerns more than 21% of all employees, compared with less than 6% in Greece, Luxembourg, and the Slovak Republic. Gender does not generally have a strong influence on contract duration. In Korea however, there is a 6 percentage point difference in favour of men. 

Top Ranking

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Indicators

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Jobs in Detail by Country

Australia

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Australia, close to 73% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is much higher than the OECD employment average of 66%. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in Australia an estimated 84% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 59% for those without an upper secondary education. This 25 percentage point difference is smaller than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in Australia is relatively inclusive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Australia, 67% of women have jobs. This is more than the OECD average of 60% but less than the 79% employment rate of men in Australia. This 12 percentage point gender difference is close to the OECD average difference and suggests Australia could further improve employment opportunities for women but has generally been successful in addressing the constraints and barriers women face in accessing work.

Young Australians aged 15-24 face an unemployment rate of 11.3% compared with the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Australia, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at nearly 1.0%, lower than the OECD average of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment – 3.2% for men and 3.1% for women. In Australia, the long-term unemployment rate for men and women is the same, at 1.0%.

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In Australia, people earn 43 908 US dollars per year on average, more than the OECD average of 34 466 USD. Not everyone earns that amount however. Whereas the top 20% of the population earn 55 624 USD per year, the bottom 20% live on 26 074 USD per year.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In Australia just over 12% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, slightly higher than an average of 10% in 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests that greater stabilisation of working contracts could be encouraged for Australian employees. 

Better Policies for Better Lives

Workplace training provides a strong learning environment and improves the transition from school to work. But training must also be relevant to the workforce development and correspond to the training needs of companies.

The Australian government has developed a specific training initiative: the National Workforce Development Fund. Under this model, funding is provided by both the company and the Australian government. Only nationally accredited training courses are eligible to this kind of funding. They cover a wide range of competency-based programmes and qualifications (over 2 000 courses and nearly 20 000 modules) that support workforce development and business needs.

By supporting accredited training in general or transferable skills, the government is addressing an important market failure, namely a potential lack of incentive for employers to fund this kind of training because another employer might benefit from the investment.

Indicators

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Austria

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Austria, nearly 72% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is higher than the OECD employment average of 66%. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education. In Austria, an estimated 86% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 50% for those without an upper secondary education. This 36 percentage point difference is close to the OECD average difference of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in Austria is relatively inclusive.

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Austria, 67% of women have jobs. This is more than the OECD average of 60% but less than the 78% employment rate of men in Austria. This 11 percentage point gender difference is slightly smaller than the OECD average of 12 percentage points and suggests Austria could further improve employment opportunities for women but has generally been successful in addressing the constraints and barriers women face in accessing work.

Young Austrians aged 15-24 face an unemployment rate of 8.3% compared with the OECD average of 16.2%.

At the same time, there is a significant difference between a large, well-performing core of the labour force, and some more vulnerable groups with lower employment rates. Better performance of vulnerable groups – older workers and foreign-born workers — would boost economy-wide employment, potential output and social cohesion. These challenges will likely increase due to continued immigration from the new EU member states in 2011.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Austria, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at 1.1%, lower than the OECD average of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. This is true in Austria, where the long-term unemployment rate for men and women is nearly the same at respectively 1.1% and 1.0%.

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In Austria, people earn 43 688 US dollars per year on average, more than the OECD average of 34 466 USD. Not everyone earns that amount however. Whereas the top 20% of the population earn 55 997 USD per year, the bottom 20% live on 26 006 USD per year.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In Austria around 9% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, slightly lower than the average of 10% in 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests Austria has been successful in stabilising working contracts and encouraging open-ended contracts. 

Indicators

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Belgium

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Belgium, nearly 62% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is slightly lower than the OECD employment average of 66%. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education. In Belgium, an estimated 82% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 39% for those without an upper secondary education. This 43 percentage point difference is larger than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in Belgium is relatively restrictive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Belgium, 57% of women have jobs. This is less than the OECD average of 60% and less than the 67% employment rate of men in Belgium. This 10 percentage point gender difference is slightly smaller than the OECD average of 12 percentage points and suggests Belgium could further improve employment opportunities for women but has generally been successful in addressing the constraints and barriers women face in accessing work.

Young Belgians aged 15-24 are not faring so well, with an unemployment rate of 18.7% compared with the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Belgium, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at 3.5%, higher than the OECD average of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. In Belgium, the long-term unemployment rate for men is slightly lower than for women, with respectively 3.3% and 3.6%

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In Belgium, people earn 44 321 US dollars per year on average, more than the OECD average of 34 466 USD. Not everyone earns that amount however. Whereas the top 20% of the population earn 53 577 USD per year, the bottom 20% live on 30 923 USD per year.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In Belgium, around 7% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, lower than the average of 10% in 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests Belgium has been successful in stabilising working contracts and encouraging open-ended contracts.

Indicators

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Brazil

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Brazil, nearly 68% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is slightly higher than the OECD employment average of 66%. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in Brazil an estimated 86% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 62% for those without an upper secondary education. This 24 percentage point difference is smaller than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in Brazil is relatively inclusive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Brazil, 56% of women have jobs. This is less than the OECD average of 60% and much less than the 80% employment rate of men in Brazil. This 24 percentage point gender difference is much higher than the OECD average of 12 percentage points and suggests employment opportunities for women could be improved in Brazil.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In Brazil, around 14% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, higher than the average of 10% for 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests that greater stabilisation of working contracts could be encouraged for Brazilian employees. 

Indicators

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Canada

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Canada, nearly 72% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is higher than the OECD employment average of 66%. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in Canada an estimated 81% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 47% for those without an upper secondary education. This 34 percentage point difference is slightly smaller than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in Canada is relatively inclusive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Canada, 69% of women have jobs. This is more than the OECD average of 60% and relatively close to the 75% employment rate of men in Canada. This 6 percentage point gender difference is much smaller than the OECD average of 12 percentage points and suggests Canada has generally been successful in addressing the constraints and barriers women face in accessing work.

Young Canadians aged 15-24 face an unemployment rate of 14.2% compared with the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Canada, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at 1.0%, much lower than the OECD average of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. This is true in Canada, where the long-term unemployment rate for men and women is nearly the same at respectively 1.1% and 0.9%.

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In Canada, people earn 42 253 US dollars per year on average, more than the OECD average of 34 466 USD. Not everyone earns that amount however. Whereas the top 20% of the population earn 58 316 USD per year, the bottom 20% live on 24 547 USD per year.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In Canada, around 11% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, slightly higher than the average of 10% for 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests greater stabilisation of working contracts could be encouraged for Canadian employees. 

Indicators

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Chile

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Chile, around 61% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is lower than the OECD employment average of 66%. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in Chile an estimated 72% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 58% for those without an upper secondary education. This 14 percentage point difference is smaller than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in Chile is relatively inclusive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Chile, 49% of women have jobs. This is less than the OECD average of 60% and much less than the 74% employment rate of men in Chile. This 25 percentage point gender difference is much larger than the OECD average of 12 percentage points and suggests employment opportunities for women could be improved in Chile. 

Young Chileans aged 15-24 also face difficulties, with an unemployment rate of 17.5% compared with an OECD average of 16.2%. Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability.

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In Chile, people earn 15 820 US dollars per year on average, less than the OECD average of 34 466 USD. 

Indicators

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Czech Republic

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In the Czech Republic, 66% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job, in line with the OECD average. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in the Czech Republic, an estimated 82% of the top 20% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 22% for those without an upper secondary education. This 60 percentage point difference is much larger than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in the Czech Republic is highly restrictive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In the Czech Republic, 57% of women have jobs. This is less than the OECD average of 60% and much less than the 74% employment rate of men in the Czech Republic. This 17 percentage point gender difference is larger than the OECD average of 12 percentage points and suggests employment opportunities for women could be improved in the Czech Republic. 

Young Czechs aged 15-24 also face difficulties, with an unemployment rate of 18.0% compared with the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In the Czech Republic, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at 2.8%, slightly lower than the OECD average of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. In the Czech Republic, however, the difference is relatively high with an unemployment rate of 2.4% for men and 3.3% for women.  

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In the Czech Republic, people earn 19 312 US dollars per year on average, less than the OECD average of 34 466 USD. Not everyone earns that amount however. Whereas the top 20% of the population earn 23 141 USD per year, the bottom 20% live on 11 276 USD per year.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In the Czech Republic, close to 7% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, lower than the average of 10% for 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests the Czech Republic has been successful in stabilising working contracts and encouraging open-ended contracts. 

Better Policies for Better Lives

A more flexible labour market to become more competitive 

The Czech Competitiveness Strategy is a recent structural reform programme with one target: to place the Czech Republic amongst the top 20 countries in terms of economic competitiveness by 2020. On the labour front, the Strategy includes many recommendations provided in recent years by the OECD, and builds on the recent Labour Code which contributed to higher employment flexibility by allowing more adaptable working hours.

The Competitiveness Strategy strongly increases the offer of part-time jobs. Other actions favour the integration of groups such as those over 55 and women with young children. In the case of young mothers, concrete solutions include increasing the availability and quality of preschool education.

This Competitiveness Strategy responds to the medium term challenges faced by the country, which is highly commendable.

Indicators

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Denmark

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Denmark, more than 73% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is higher than the OECD employment average of 66%. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in Denmark an estimated 85% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 59% for those without an upper secondary education. This 26 percentage point difference is lower than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in Denmark is relatively inclusive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Denmark, 70% of women have jobs. This is more than the OECD average of 60% and relatively close to the 76% employment rate of men in Denmark. This 6 percentage point gender difference is much lower than the OECD average of 12 percentage points and suggests Denmark has generally been successful in addressing the constraints and barriers women face in accessing work.

Young Danes aged 15-24 face an unemployment rate of 14.2% compared with the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Denmark, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at nearly 1.9%, lower than the OECD average of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. In Denmark, the long-term unemployment rate for men is slightly higher than for women, with respectively 2.0% and 1.7%.  

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In Denmark, people earn 45802 US dollars per year on average, more than the OECD average of 34 466 USD. Not everyone earns that amount however. Whereas the top 20% of the population earn 57 073 USD per year, the bottom 20% live on 29 513 USD per year.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In Denmark, close to 13% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, slightly higher than the average of 10% for 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests greater stabilisation of working contracts could be encouraged for Danish employees.

Better Policies for Better Lives

Across the OECD, students from low socio-economic background are twice as likely to be low performers at school, implying that social circumstances are obstacles to educational attainment. To prevent school failure, governments can use targeted policies. If the Danish government is to raise the number of young people completing secondary education from a current 86 % rate to 95% by 2015, for example, it must raise overall completion rates, but more particularly those of immigrants who have a disproportionately high drop-out rate. In 2005 there was a 17 percentage point difference between the upper secondary completion rate of first – and second – generation immigrants and the overall upper secondary completion rate.  

The “Retention caravan” initiative is a four-year project (2008-2012) that aims to improve the integration of young immigrants, including second-generation immigrants, into the labour market by promoting their educational attainment. In order to ensure sustainable integration, a second objective is to encourage these young students to pursue training in areas where future shortages are predicted and where young people with a migrant background are under-represented. This program helps students write CVs and prepare interviews. The Retention Caravan is also recruiting a mentor team of retired skilled mechanics and blacksmiths to help and advise vulnerable youth in vocational training courses.

 

Indicators

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Estonia

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Estonia, nearly 65% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is lower than the OECD employment average of 66%. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in Estonia an estimated 84% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 28% for those without an upper secondary education. This 56 percentage point difference is much larger than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in Estonia is highly restrictive.

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Estonia, 63% of women have jobs. This is close to the OECD average and relatively close to the 68% employment rate of men in Estonia. This 5 percentage point gender difference is much smaller than the OECD average of 12 percentage points and suggests Estonia has been successful in addressing the constraints and barriers women face in accessing work.

Young Estonians, aged 15-24, however face difficulties, with an unemployment rate of 21.6% compared with the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Estonia, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at 7.1%, much higher than the OECD average of 3.1% and one of the highest unemployment rates. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. In Estonia, however, the difference is relatively high with an unemployment rate of 7.8% for men and 6.3% for women. 

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In Estonia, people earn 17 323 US dollars per year on average, less than the OECD average of 34 466USD.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In Estonia, close to 11% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, slightly higher than the average of 10% for 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests greater stabilisation of working contracts could be encouraged for Estonian employees. 

Indicators

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Finland

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Finland, 69% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is slightly higher than the OECD employment average of 66%. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in Finland, an estimated 85% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 42% for those without an upper secondary education. This 43 percentage point difference is slightly larger than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in Finland is relatively restrictive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Finland, 68% of women have jobs. This is more than the OECD average of 60% and relatively close to the 71% employment rate of men in Finland. This 3 percentage point gender difference is much smaller than the OECD average of 12 percentage points  and suggests Finland has been successful in addressing the constraints and barriers women face in accessing work.

Young Finns, aged 15-24, however, face difficulties, with an unemployment rate of 18.9% compared with the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Finland, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at nearly 1.8%, lower than the OECD average of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. In Finland, the long-term unemployment rate for men is slightly higher than for women, with respectively 2.2% and 1.2%. 

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In Finland, people earn 36 468 US dollars per year on average, close to the OECD average of 34 466 USD. Not everyone earns that amount however. Whereas the top 20% of the population earn 45 547 USD per year, the bottom 20% live on 24 691 USD per year.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In Finland, close to 15% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, more than the average of 10% for 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests greater stabilisation of working contracts could be encouraged for Finnish employees. 

Indicators

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France

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In France, nearly 64% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is slightly lower than the OECD employment average of 66%. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in France an estimated 80% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 45% for those without an upper secondary education. This 35 percentage point difference is slightly smaller than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in France is relatively inclusive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In France, 60% of women have jobs. This is close to the OECD average but less than the 68% employment rate of men in France. This 8 percentage point gender difference however is smaller than the OECD average of 12 percentage points and suggests France could further improve employment opportunities for women but has generally been successful in addressing the constraints and barriers women face in accessing work.

Young people in France, aged 15-24, however, face difficulties, with an unemployment rate of 22.1% compared with the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In France, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at 3.8%, higher than the OECD average of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. In France, the long-term unemployment rate for women is slightly higher than for men, with respectively 4.0% and 3.7%. 

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In France, people earn 37 505 US dollars per year on average, more than the OECD average of 34 466 USD. Not everyone earns that amount however. Whereas the top 20% of the population earn 45 292 USD per year, the bottom 20% live on 23 069 USD per year.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In France, about 9% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, slightly lower than the average of 10% for 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests France has been successful in stabilising working contracts and encouraging open-ended contracts. 

Indicators

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Germany

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Germany, close to 73% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is higher than the OECD employment average of 66%. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in Germany an estimated 88% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 46% for those without an upper secondary education. This 42 percentage point difference is higher than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in Germany is relatively restrictive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Germany, 68% of women have jobs. This is more than the OECD average of 60% but less than the 77% employment rate of men in Germany. This 9 percentage point gender difference, however, is smaller than the OECD average of 12 percentage points and suggests Germany could further improve employment opportunities for women but has generally been successful in addressing the constraints and barriers women face accessing work.

Young Germans, aged 15-24, face an unemployment rate of 8.5% compared with the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Germany, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at 2.8%, lower than the OECD average of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. In Germany, the long-term unemployment rate for men is slightly higher than for women, with respectively 3.0% and 2.6%.

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In Germany, people earn 39 593 US dollars per year on average, more than the OECD average of 34 466 USD. Not everyone earns that amount however. Whereas the top 20% of the population earn 51 081 USD per year, the bottom 20% live on 23 625 USD per year.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In Germany, about 8% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, lower than the average of 10% for 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests Germany has been successful in stabilising working contracts and encouraging open-ended contracts. 

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Greece

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Greece, close to 56% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is much lower than the OECD employment average of 66% and one of the lowest figures in the OECD. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in Greece an estimated 73% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 45% for those without an upper secondary education. This 28 percentage point difference is smaller than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in Greece is relatively inclusive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Greece, 45% of women have jobs. This is less than the OECD average of 60% and much less than the 66% employment rate of men in Greece. This 21 percentage point gender difference is much higher than the OECD average of 12 percentage points and suggests employment opportunities for women in Greece could be improved.

Young Greeks, aged 15-24, also face difficulties, with an unemployment rate of 44.4% compared with the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Greece, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at almost 8.8%, much higher than the OECD average of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. In Greece, however, the difference is relatively high with an unemployment rate of 6.7% for men and 11.5% for women. 

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In Greece, people earn 28 011 US dollars per year on average, less than the OECD average of 34 466 USD. Not everyone earns that amount however. Whereas the top 20% of the population earn 35 752 USD per year, the bottom 20% live on 16 807 USD per year.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In Greece, about 5% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, much lower than the average of 10% for 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests Greece has been successful in stabilising working contracts and encouraging open-ended contracts. 

Better Policies for Better Lives

Creating jobs for youth

Young people in Greece were particularly affected by the global economic crisis; indeed young people are among the most disadvantaged groups in the Greek labour market with unemployment reaching 55.2% for 15-24 year-olds in 2012, compared with an OECD average of 16.2%.

Improving the performance of youth in the labour market is a pressing challenge in OECD countries. For Greece, the OECD strongly recommended easing the entry into the labour market for young workers by lowering the cost of labour for employers. Greece also introduced one-year apprenticeship contracts for 15-18-year-olds, which offer 70% of the minimum wage. In order to acquire work experience, under a 2011 law young people can be employed under fixed-term contracts of up to 24 months at 20% below the minimum wage.

These programmes should enhance youth job creation. 

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Hungary

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Hungary, 56% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is much lower than the OECD employment average of 66% and one of the lowest figures in the OECD. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in Hungary an estimated 78% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 26% for those without an upper secondary education. This 52 percentage point difference is much higher than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in Hungary is considerably restrictive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Hungary, 51% of women have jobs. This is less than the OECD average of 60% and the 61% employment rate of men in Hungary. This 10 percentage point difference, however, is lower than the 12 percentage points and suggests Hungary could further improve employment opportunities for women but has generally been successful in addressing the constraints and barriers women face in accessing work.

Young Hungarians, aged 15-24, however, face difficulties, with an unemployment rate of 26.1% compared with the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Hungary, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at almost 5.4%, higher than the OECD average of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. This is true in Hungary, where the long-term unemployment rate for men and for women is the same.  

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In Hungary, people earn 19 437 US dollars per year on average, much less than the OECD average of 34 466 USD. Not everyone earns that amount however. Whereas the top 20% of the population earn 24 465 USD per year, the bottom 20% live on 9 595 USD per year.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In Hungary, close to 8% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, slightly lower than the average of 10% for 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests Hungary has been successful in stabilising working contracts and encouraging open-ended contracts. 

Better Policies for Better Lives

Tackling labour market exclusion of the Roma through education

In Hungary, the Roma represent around 7% of the total population. They suffer from widespread poverty and social exclusion, closely related to their significantly higher unemployment rate and marginalisation from the labour market. Lower educational attainment of the Roma contributes strongly to this employment gap. In order to improve their integration and especially labour market prospects, it is thus critical to reduce education gaps.

The Hungarian government has taken various measures to address the Roma education challenge. A recent policy measure takes a “sticks and carrots” approach to the issue: financially rewarding schools that accept Roma pupils beyond legal obligations and sanctioning those that refuse. The first assessments of this integration programme suggest that the performance of Roma students tends to rise, while that of the non-Roma is unaffected.

Although these targeted policies have a cost, they have succeeded in raising education attainments for the Roma and could prove to be a valuable investment. By leading to stronger employability of the Roma population, these policies benefit the national budget through higher tax and social security receipts and lower unemployment benefits during the working life of the individual.  

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Iceland

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Iceland, 79% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is much higher than the OECD employment average of 66% and is one of the highest rates in the OECD. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in Iceland an estimated 89% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 71% for those without an upper secondary education. This 18 percentage point difference is much lower than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in Iceland is relatively inclusive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Iceland, 77% of women have jobs. This is much more than the OECD average of 60% and relatively close to the 81% employment rate of men in Iceland. The 4 percentage point gender difference is much lower than the OECD average of 12 percentage points and suggests Iceland has been successful in addressing the constraints and barriers women face accessing work.

Young people aged 15-24 in Iceland face an unemployment rate of 14.6% compared with the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Iceland, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at nearly 2.0%, lower than the OECD average of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. In Iceland, the long-term unemployment rate for men is slightly higher than for women, with respectively 2.2% and 1.7%.

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In Iceland, people earn 37 290 US dollars per year on average, more than the OECD average of 34 466 USD. Not everyone earns that amount however. Whereas the top 20% of the population earn 55 075 USD per year, the bottom 20% live on 26 879 USD per year.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In Iceland, close to 11% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, slightly higher than the average of 10% for 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests greater stabilisation of working contracts could be encouraged for employees from Iceland. 

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Ireland

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Ireland, close to 60% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is lower than the OECD employment average of 66%. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in Ireland an estimated 79% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 36% for those without an upper secondary education. This 43 percentage point difference is higher than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in Ireland is relatively restrictive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Ireland, 56% of women have jobs. This is less than the OECD average of 60% and less than the 63% employment rate of men in Ireland. This 7 percentage point difference, however, is lower than the OECD average of 12 percentage points and suggests Ireland could further improve employment opportunities for women but has generally been successful in addressing the constraints and barriers women face accessing work.

Young people aged 15-24 in Ireland, however, face difficulties with an unemployment rate of 30.3% compared with the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Ireland, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at 8.5%, much higher than the OECD average of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. In Ireland, however, the difference is relatively high with an unemployment rate of 11.5% for men and 4.9%% for women.

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In Ireland, people earn 50 109 US dollars per year on average, more than the OECD average of 34 466 USD. Not everyone earns that amount however. Whereas the top 20% of the population earn 67 630 USD per year, the bottom 20% live on 28 182 USD per year.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In Ireland, close to 7% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, lower than the average of 10% for 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests Ireland has been successful in stabilising working contracts and encouraging open-ended contracts. 

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Israel

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Israel, around 61% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is lower than the OECD employment average of 66%. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in Israel an estimated 82% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 31% for those without an upper secondary education. This 51 percentage point difference is higher than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in Israel is restrictive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Israel, 57% of women have jobs. This is less than the OECD average of 60% and less than the 64% employment rate of men in Israel. This 7 percentage point gender difference, however, is lower than the OECD average of 12 percentage points and suggests Israel could further improve employment opportunities for women but has generally been successful in addressing the constraints and barriers women face accessing work.

Young people aged 15-24 in Israel face an unemployment rate of 11.6% compared with the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Israel, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at 1.1%, lower than the OECD average of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. This is true in Israel, where the long-term unemployment rate for men and women is nearly the same at respectively 1.2% and 1.1%.

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In Israel, people earn 28 629 US dollars per year on average, less than the OECD average of 34 466 USD. Not everyone earns that amount however. Whereas the top 20% of the population earn 39 324 USD per year, the bottom 20% live on 13 691 USD per year.

Indicators

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Italy

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Italy, nearly 57% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is lower than the OECD employment average of 66%. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in Italy an estimated 76% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 44% for those without an upper secondary education. This 32 percentage point difference is slightly lower than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in Italy is relatively inclusive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Italy, 47% of women have jobs. This is much less than the OECD average of 60% and much less than the 67% employment rate of men in Italy. This 20 percentage point difference is higher than the OECD average of 12 percentage points and suggests employment opportunities for women could be improved.

Young Italians, aged 15-24, are also facing difficulties, with an unemployment rate of 29.1% compared with the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Italy, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at almost 4.4%, higher than the OECD average of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. In Italy, however, the difference is relatively high with an unemployment rate of 3.9% for men and 5.0% for women.  

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In Italy, people earn 33 947 US dollars per year on average, less than the OECD average of 34 466 USD. Not everyone earns that amount however. Whereas the top 20% of the population earn 40 560 USD per year, the bottom 20% live on 24 287 USD per year.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In Italy, close to 7% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, lower than the average of 10% for 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests Italy has been successful in stabilising working contracts and encouraging open-ended contracts. 

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Japan

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Japan, more than 70% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is higher than the OECD employment average of 66%. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in Japan an estimated 75% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 61% for those without an upper secondary education. This 14 percentage point difference is lower than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in Japan is relatively inclusive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Japan, 60% of women have jobs. This is close to the OECD average but much less than the 80% employment rate of men in Japan. This 20 percentage point gender difference is higher than the OECD average of 12 percentage points and suggests employment opportunities for women could be improved.

Young people aged 15-24 in Japan, face an unemployment rate of 8.0% compared with the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Japan, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at nearly 1.8%, lower than the OECD average of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. In Japan, however, the difference is relatively high with an unemployment rate of 2.3% for men and 1.1% for women.

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In Japan, people earn 35 143 US dollars per year on average, more than the OECD average of 34 466 USD. Not everyone earns that amount however. Whereas the top 20% of the population earn 45 161 USD per year, the bottom 20% live on 22 154 USD per year. 

Indicators

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Korea

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Korea, close to 64% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is slightly lower than the OECD employment average of 66%. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in Korea an estimated 77% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 46% for those without an upper secondary education. This 31 percentage point difference is slightly lower than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in Korea is relatively inclusive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Korea, 53% of women have jobs. This is less than the OECD average of 60% and less than the 75% employment rate of men in Korea. This 22 percentage point gender difference is much higher than the OECD average of 12 percentage points and suggests employment opportunities for women could be improved.

Young Koreans, aged 15-24, however, are faring well with an unemployment rate of 9.6% compared with the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Korea, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at 0.01%, the lowest rate in the OECD where the average long-term unemployment rate is 3.1%. 

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In Korea, people earn 35 406 US dollars per year on average, more than the OECD average of 34 466 USD. Not everyone earns that amount however. Whereas the top 20% of the population earn 50 409 USD, the bottom 20% live on 17 458 USD per year.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In Korea, around 24% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, higher than the average of 10% for 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests greater stabilisation of working contracts could be encouraged for Korean employees. 

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Luxembourg

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Luxembourg, close to 65% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is close to the OECD employment average of 66%. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in Luxembourg, an estimated 83% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 43% for those without an upper secondary education. This 40 percentage point difference is slightly larger than the OECD average difference of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in Luxembourg is relatively restrictive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Luxembourg, 57% of women have jobs. This is close to the OECD average of 60% but less than the 72% employment rate of men in Luxembourg. This 15 percentage point gender difference is slightly larger than the 12 percentage point OECD average gap.

Young people aged 15-24 in Luxembourg face an unemployment rate of 16.8% compared with the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Luxembourg, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at 1.4%, lower than the OECD average of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. In Luxembourg, the long-term unemployment rate for men is slightly lower than for women, with respectively 1.3% and 1.6%.

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In Luxembourg, people earn 52 847 US dollars per year on average, much more than the OECD average of 34 466 USD.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In Luxembourg, around 5% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, lower than the average of 10% for 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests Luxembourg has been successful in stabilising working contracts and encouraging open-ended contracts. 

Indicators

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Mexico

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Mexico, close to 60% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is lower than the OECD employment average of 66%. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in Mexico an estimated 70% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 58% for those without an upper secondary education. This 12 percentage point difference is lower than the OECD average difference of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in Mexico is relatively inclusive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Mexico, 43% of women have jobs. This is less than the OECD average of 60% and much less than the 78% employment rate of men in Mexico. This 35 percentage point gender difference is much higher than the OECD average of 12 percentage points and suggests employment opportunities for women could be improved.

Young people aged 15-24 in Mexico face an unemployment rate of 9.8% compared with the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Mexico, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at 0.1%, much lower than the OECD average of 3.1% and one of the lowest rates in the OECD. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. In Mexico, the long-term unemployment rate for men and women is nearly the same. 

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In Mexico, people earn 9 885 US dollars per year on average, much less than the OECD average of 34 466 USD and the lowest rate in the OECD.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In Mexico, around 21% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, much higher than the average of 10% for 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests greater stabilisation of working contracts could be encouraged for Mexican employees. 

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Netherlands

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In the Netherlands, nearly 75% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is much higher than the OECD employment average of 66%. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in the Netherlands, an estimated 87% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 59% for those without an upper secondary education. This 28 percentage point difference is lower than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in the Netherlands is relatively inclusive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In the Netherlands, 70% of women have jobs. This is more than the OECD average of 60% but less than the 80% employment rate of men in the Netherlands. This 10 percentage point gender difference, however, is slightly lower than the OECD average of 12 percentage points and suggests the Netherlands could further improve employment opportunities for women but have generally been successful in addressing the constraints and barriers women face in accessing work.

Young people aged 15-24 in the Netherlands, face an unemployment rate of 7.7% compared with the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In the Netherlands, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at 1.5%, lower than the OECD average of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. This is true in the Netherlands, where the long-term unemployment rate for men and women is nearly the same at respectively 1.6% and 1.4%.

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In the Netherlands, people earn 44 321 US dollars per year on average, more than the OECD average of 34 466 USD. Not everyone earns that amount however. Whereas the top 20% of the population earn 55 029 USD per year, the bottom 20% live on 28 345 USD per year.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In the Netherlands, close to 9% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, slightly lower than the average of 10% for 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests the Netherlands have been successful in stabilising working contracts and encouraging open-ended contracts. 

Indicators

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New Zealand

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In New Zealand, close to 73% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is higher than the OECD employment average of 66%. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in New-Zealand an estimated 83% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 58% for those without an upper secondary education. This 25 percentage point difference is lower than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in New-Zealand is relatively inclusive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In New-Zealand, 67% of women have jobs. This is more than the OECD average of 60% but less than the 78% employment rate of men in New-Zealand. This 11 percentage point gender difference is slightly lower than the OECD average of 12 percentage points and suggests New-Zealand could further improve employment opportunities for women but has generally been successful in addressing the constraints and barriers women face in accessing work.

Young people aged 15-24 in New-Zealand, are facing difficulties however, with an unemployment rate of 17.3% compared with the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In New Zealand, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at 0.6%, much lower than the OECD average of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. In New-Zealand, the long-term unemployment rate for men and women is nearly the same with respectively 0.6% and 0.5%.

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In the Netherlands, people earn 30 420 US dollars per year on average, less than the OECD average of 34 466 USD. Not everyone earns that amount however. Whereas the top 20% of the population earn 38 798 USD per year, the bottom 20% live on 19 006 USD per year. 

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Norway

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Norway, more than 75% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is much higher than the OECD employment average of 66%. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in Norway an estimated 88% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 56% for those without an upper secondary education. This 32 percentage point difference is slightly lower than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in Norway is relatively inclusive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Norway, 73% of women have jobs. This is more than the OECD average of 60% and relatively close to the 77% employment rate of men in Norway. This 4 percentage point gender difference is much lower than the OECD average difference of 12 percentage points and suggests Norway has been successful in addressing the constraints and  barriers women face accessing work.

Young Norwegians aged 15-24 face an unemployment rate of 8.6%, compared with the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Norway, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at nearly 0.4%, much lower than the OECD average of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. In Norway, the long-term unemployment rate for men and women is nearly the same, at respectively 0.5% and 0.3%.

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In Norway, people earn 43 990 US dollars per year on average, more than the OECD average of 34 466 USD. Not everyone earns that amount however. Whereas the top 20% of the population earn 48 724 USD per year, the bottom 20% live on 30 366 USD per year.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In Norway, close to 8% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, slightly lower than the average of 10% for 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests Norway has been successful in stabilising working contracts and encouraging open-ended contracts. 

Indicators

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Poland

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Poland, close to 60% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is lower than the OECD employment average of 66%. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in Poland an estimated 83% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 24% for those without an upper secondary education. This 59 percentage point difference is much higher than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in Poland is considerably restrictive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Poland, 53% of women have jobs. This is less than the OECD average of 60% and less than the 66% employment rate of men in Poland. This 13 percentage point gender difference is close to the 12 percentage point OECD average difference and suggests Poland could further improve employment opportunities for women but has generally been successful in addressing the constraints and barriers women face accessing work.

Young Polish people aged 15-24 however, are facing difficulties, with an unemployment rate of 25.8% compared with the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Poland, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at almost 3.1%, in line with the OECD average. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. In Poland, the long-term unemployment rate for men is slightly lower than for women, with respectively 2.8% and 3.4%.

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In Poland, people earn 19 806 US dollars per year on average, less than the OECD average of 34 466 USD. Not everyone earns that amount however. Whereas the top 20% of the population earn 26 308 USD per year, the bottom 20% live on 10 906 USD per year.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In Poland, around 8% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, slightly lower than the average of 10% for 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests Poland has been successful in stabilising working contracts and encouraging open-ended contracts. 

Indicators

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Portugal

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Portugal, around 64% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is close to the OECD average of 66%. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in Portugal, an estimated 81% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 61% for those without an upper secondary education. This 20 percentage point difference is lower than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in Portugal is relatively inclusive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Portugal, 60% of women have jobs, a figure in line with the OECD average, but below the 68% employment rate of men in Portugal. This 8 percentage point gender difference is lower than the OECD average of 12 percentage points and suggests Portugal could further improve employment opportunities for women but has generally been successful in addressing the constraints and barriers women face in accessing work.

Young Portuguese people aged 15-24, however, are facing difficulties, with an unemployment rate of 30.1% compared with the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Portugal, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at 6.1%, much higher than the OECD average of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. In Portugal, the unemployment rate for men is slightly lower than for women with respectively 6.0% and 6.3%. 

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In Portugal, people earn 24 384 US dollars per year on average, less than the OECD average of 34 466 USD Not everyone earns that amount however. Whereas the top 20% of the population earn 30 578 USD per year, the bottom 20% live on 13 056 USD per year.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In Portugal, close to 9% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, slightly lower than the average of 10% for 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests Portugal has been successful in stabilising working contracts and encouraging open-ended contracts.

 

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Russian Federation

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In the Russian Federation, close to 68% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is slightly higher than the OECD employment average of 66%.

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In the Russian Federation, 64% of women have jobs. This is more than the OECD average of 60% but less than the 72% employment rate of men in the Russian Federation. This 8 percentage point difference is lower than the OECD average of 12 percentage points and suggests the Russian Federation could further improve employment opportunities for women but has generally been successful in addressing the constraints and barriers women face in accessing work.

Young Russians, aged 15-24, face an unemployment rate of 15.5%, slightly lower than the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Russia, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at nearly 2.2%, lower than the OECD average of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. In Russia, the long-term unemployment rate for men is slightly higher than for women, at respectively 2.3% and 2.1%.

Indicators

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Slovak Republic

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In the Slovak Republic, around 59% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is lower than the OECD employment average of 66%. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in the Slovak Republic, an estimated 79% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 14% for those without an upper secondary education. This 65 percentage point difference is much higher than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and represents the largest gap across OECD countries. This suggests the job market in the Slovak Republic is highly restrictive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In the Slovak Republic, 53% of women have jobs. This is less than the OECD average of 60% and less than the 66% employment rate of men in the Slovak Republic. This 13 percentage point gender difference is close to the 12 percentage point OECD average difference.

Young people in the Slovak Republic, aged 15-24, however are facing difficulties with an unemployment rate of 33.2% higher than the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In the Slovak Republic, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at nearly 8.7%, one of the highest rates in the OECD where average unemployment is of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. In the Slovak Republic the long-term unemployment rate for men is slightly higher than for women, at respectively 8.8% and 8.5%.

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In the Slovak Republic, people earn 19 335 US dollars per year on average, less than the OECD average of 34 466 USD. Not everyone earns that amount however. Whereas the top 20% of the population earn 24 165 USD dollars per year, the bottom 20% live on 10 496 USD per year.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In the Slovak Republic, close to 5% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, lower than the average of 10% for 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests the Slovak Republic has been successful in stabilising working contracts and encouraging open-ended contracts.

Indicators

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Slovenia

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Slovenia, close to 64% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is close to the OECD average of 66%. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in Slovenia an estimated 84% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 39% for those without an upper secondary education. This 45 percentage point difference is higher than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in Slovenia is relatively restrictive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Slovenia, 61% of women have jobs. This is slightly more than the OECD average of 60% but less than the 68% employment rate of men in Slovenia. This 7 percentage point gender difference is lower than the OECD average of 12 percentage points and suggests Slovenia could further improve employment opportunities for women but has generally been successful in addressing the constraints and  barriers women face accessing work.

Young Slovenians, aged 15-24, face an unemployment rate of 15.7%, slightly lower than the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Slovenia, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at 3.6%, slightly higher than the OECD average of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. In Slovenia, the long-term unemployment rate for men is slightly higher than for women, at respectively 3.7% and 3.5%.

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In Slovenia, people earn 32 480 US dollars per year on average, slightly less than the OECD average of 34 466 USD.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In Slovenia, close to 8% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, slightly lower than the average of 10% for 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests Slovenia has been successful in stabilising working contracts and encouraging open-ended contracts.

Indicators

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Spain

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Spain, around 58% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is lower than the OECD employment average of 66%.

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Spain, 53% of women have jobs. This is less than the OECD average of 60% and less than the 64% employment rate of men in Spain. This 11 percentage point gender difference is slightly below the 12 percentage point OECD average difference and suggests Spain could further improve employment opportunities for women but has generally been successful in addressing the constraints and barriers women face accessing work.

Young people in Spain, aged 15-24, are facing important difficulties, with an unemployment rate of 46.4% much higher than the OECD average of 16.2% and the highest rate in the OECD.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Spain, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at nearly 9.0%, nearly three times the OECD average and the highest rate in the OECD where average unemployment is of 3.0%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. In Spain, however, the difference is relatively high with an unemployment rate of 8.6% for men and 9.5% for women.

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In Spain, people earn 34 769 US dollars per year on average, slightly more than the OECD average of 34 466 USD. Not everyone earns that amount however. Whereas the top 20% of the population earn 47 165 USD per year, the bottom 20% live on 21 065 USD per year.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In Spain, close to 11% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, slightly higher than the average of 10% for 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests greater stabilisation of working contracts could be encouraged for Spanish employees. 

Indicators

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Sweden

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Sweden, 74% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is higher than the OECD employment average of 66%. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in Sweden an estimated 89% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 49% for those without an upper secondary education. This 40 percentage point difference is slightly higher than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in Sweden is relatively restrictive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Sweden, 72% of women have jobs. This is more than the OECD average of 60% and relatively close to the 76% employment rate of men in Sweden. This 4 percentage point gender difference is much lower than the OECD average of 12 percentage points and suggests Sweden has generally been successful in addressing the constraints and barriers women face accessing work.

Young Swedish people, aged 15-24, however, are facing difficulties with an unemployment rate of 22.9%, higher than the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Sweden, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at almost 1.3%, lower than the OECD average of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. In Sweden, the long-term unemployment rate for men is slightly higher than for women, at respectively 1.5% and 1.1%. 

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In Sweden, people earn 37 094 US dollars per year on average, more than the OECD average 34 466 USD.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In Sweden, close to 14% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, higher than the average of 10% for 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests greater stabilisation of working contracts could be encouraged for Swedish employees. 

Indicators

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Switzerland

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Switzerland, around 79% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is the highest rate in the OECD where average employment is of 66%. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in Switzerland an estimated 89% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 44% for those without an upper secondary education. This 45 percentage point difference is higher than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in Switzerland is relatively restrictive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Switzerland, 73% of women have jobs. This is more than the OECD average of 60% but less than the 85% employment rate of men in Switzerland. This 12 percentage point gender difference is in line with the OECD average and suggests Switzerland could further improve employment opportunities for women but has generally been successful in addressing the constraints and barriers women face in accessing work.

Young Swiss people, aged 15-24, face an unemployment rate of 7.7%, lower than the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Switzerland, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at almost 1.6%, lower than the OECD average of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. In Switzerland, the long-term unemployment rate for men is slightly lower than for women, with respectively 1.4% and 1.8%.

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In Switzerland, people earn 50 323 US dollars per year on average, much more than the OECD average of 34 466 USD. Not everyone earns that amount however. Whereas the top 20% of the population earn 74 652 USD per year, the bottom 20% live on 39 951 USD per year.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In Switzerland, around 8% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, slightly lower than the average of 10% for 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests Switzerland has been successful in stabilising working contracts and encouraging open-ended contracts. 

Indicators

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Turkey

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Turkey, more than 48% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is much lower than the OECD employment average of 66%, and the lowest rate in the OECD. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in Turkey an estimated 75% of individuals with at least a tertiary education have a paid job, compared with an estimated 46% for those without an upper secondary education. This 29 percentage point difference is slightly lower than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in Turkey is relatively inclusive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Turkey, 28% of women have jobs. This is much less than the OECD average of 60% and the 70% employment rate of men in Turkey. This 42 percentage point gender difference is much higher than the OECD average of 12 percentage points and the highest amongst OECD countries. This suggests employment opportunities for women could be improved.

Young Turkish people aged 15-24 also face difficulties, with an unemployment rate of 18.4%, higher than the OECD average of 16.2%. 

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Turkey, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at 2.6%, lower than the OECD average of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. In Turkey, however, the difference is relatively high with an unemployment rate of 2.1% for men and 3.9% for women.

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In Turkey, people earn 19 032 US dollars per year on average, much less than the OECD average of 34 466 USD.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In Turkey, close to 26% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, higher than the average of 10% for 30 OECD countries and the highest score across the OECD. This figure suggests greater stabilisation of working contracts could be encouraged for Turkish employees. 

Indicators

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United Kingdom

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In the United Kingdom, more than 70% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is higher than the OECD employment average of 66%.

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In the United Kingdom, 65% of women have jobs. This is more than the OECD average of 60% but less than the 76% employment rate of men in the United Kingdom. This 11 percentage point gender difference is slightly lower than the OECD average of 12 percentage points and suggests the United Kingdom could further improve employment opportunities for women but has generally been successful in addressing the constraints and barriers women face accessing work.

Young people in the United Kingdom, aged 15-24, face difficulties however, with an unemployment rate of 20.0%, higher than the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In the United Kingdom, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at 2.6%, slightly lower than the OECD average of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. In the United Kingdom, however, the difference is relatively high with an unemployment rate of 3.2% for men and 1.9% for women.

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In the United Kingdom, people earn 44 743 US dollars per year on average, much more than the OECD average of 34 466 USD. Not everyone earns that amount however. Whereas the top 20% of the population earn 57 373 USD per year, the bottom 20% live on 24 428 USD per year.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In the United Kingdom, close to 7% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, slightly less than the average of 10% for 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests the United Kingdom has been successful in stabilising working contracts and encouraging open-ended contracts. 

Better Policies for Better Lives

The Mayor’s Apprenticeship Campaign in London

Quality apprenticeships are effective policy tools for fostering skills acquisition and promoting smooth transitions from school to formal sector employment, offering advantages to both employers and school-leavers. London has one of the highest unemployment rates in the United Kingdom and, until recently, particularly low takeup of training opportunities, such as apprenticeships. The government has adopted a more market-based approach to skills and funding has been shifted to support greater use of apprenticeships, which are seen as employer-driven and an approach that can boost individuals’ skills.

The Mayor’s Apprenticeship Campaign in London was established to boost the use of apprenticeships in a context where employers are seen as the leaders of the skills development system. As a result of the campaign, the number of apprentices in London doubled in one year alone: from 20 000 in 2009-10 to 40 000 in 2010-11. There have been concerns at national level that increases in the quantity of training may have come partly at the expense of quality. While this is an ongoing challenge, evidence suggests that the quality of apprenticeships has been maintained in London: apprenticeship completion rates have risen from one in three to two in three, the fastest growth rate in England. 

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United States

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In the United States, nearly 67% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is close to the OECD employment average of 66%. Employment rates are generally higher for individuals with a higher level of education; in the United States an estimated 80% of individuals with at least a tertiary education  have a paid job, compared with an estimated 35% for those without an upper secondary education. This 45 percentage point difference is higher than the OECD average of 37 percentage points and suggests the job market in the United States is relatively restrictive.  

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In the United States, 62% of women have jobs. This is more than the OECD average of 60% but less than the 71% employment rate of men in the United States. This 9 percentage point gender difference is slightly lower than the OECD average of 12 percentage points and suggests the United States could further improve employment opportunities for women but have generally been successful in addressing the constraints and barriers women face accessing work.

Young Americans, aged 15-24, face difficulties however, with an unemployment rate of 17.3%, slightly higher than the OECD average of 16.2%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In the United States, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at 2.8%, slightly lower than the OECD average of 3.1%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. In the United States, the long-term unemployment rate for men is slightly higher than for women, with respectively 3.0% and 2.6%.

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In the United States, people earn 54 450 US dollars per year on average, much more than the OECD average of 34 466 USD and the highest rate across the OECD. Not everyone earns that amount however. Whereas the top 20% of the population earn 70 927 USD per year, the bottom 20% live on 24 080 USD per year.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In the United States, around 11% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, slightly more than the average of 10% for 30 OECD countries. This figure suggests greater stabilisation of working contracts could be encouraged for US employees. 

Indicators

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