Australia

Key Findings

Finding a suitable balance between work and life is a challenge for all workers, especially working parents. Some couples would like to have (more) children, but do not see how they could afford to stop working. Other parents are happy with the number of children in their family, but would like to work more. This is a challenge to governments because if parents cannot achieve their desired work/life balance, not only is their welfare lowered but so is development in the country.

People spend one-tenth to one-fifth of their time on unpaid work. The distribution of tasks within the family is still influenced by gender roles: men are more likely to undertake more hours of paid work, while women spend longer in unpaid domestic work. Men in Australia, spend 172 minutes per day cooking, cleaning or caring, one of the highest scores across OECD countries but less than Australian women who spend 311 minutes per day on average on domestic work.

An important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Australia work on average 1 693 hours a year, less than the OECD average of 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In Australia, however, more than 14% of employees work very long hours, much more than the OECD average of 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in Australia 21% of men work very long hours, compared with 6% for women.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Australia devote 60% of their day, or 14.4 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – less than the OECD average of 14.9 hours. Fewer hours in paid work for women do not necessarily result in greater leisure time. In Australia, both men and women devote approximately 14 hours per day to personal care and leisure.

Better Policies for Better Lives

Helping single parents find paid work

Australia performs well on a number of important outcomes of work-life balance: fertility (1.9 children per women) is above the OECD average (1.7), the female employment rate (66.2%) has been rising steadily since the 1960s and is now well above OECD average (59.6%), and the gender wage gap (12%) is below average (16%). Unlike many other OECD countries, mothers often return to full-time work once their children reach schooling age.

However, joblessness among sole parent families is a significant problem. At just over 50% in 2009 the sole-parent employment rate is one of the lowest in the OECD, which contributes to an above average poverty rate for sole-parent families. This issue is of particular concern as around one in five children live in such households, and projections show that the number is likely to increase by 20% over the next 25 years. Australian policy should therefore continue to support work, training or job search requirements for recipients of sole-parent benefits.

Australia does well for most of its children as measured by outcomes within the three key dimensions of material well-being, education and health. The child poverty rate has fallen over the last 10 years and is now below the OECD average, PISA reading scores are above the OECD average, older children are less likely to be out of education or employment, and the incidence of infant deaths has also seen a large decline.

Despite above average public expenditure on families, Australia spends less on childcare services than most OECD countries: 0.4% of GDP compared with the OECD average of 0.6%. This has contributed to low childcare enrolment rates for young children, with only 40% of children aged less than six years enrolled in formal childcare. Australia should consider extending its childcare support programmes to provide more help to working parents.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Austria

Key Findings

People spend one-tenth to one-fifth of their time on unpaid work. The distribution of tasks within the family is still influenced by gender roles: men are more likely to undertake more hours of paid work, while women spend longer in unpaid domestic work. Men in Austria, spend 135 minutes per day cooking, cleaning or caring, slightly more than the OECD average of 131 minutes but far less than Austrian women who spend 269 minutes per day on average on domestic work.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Austria work 1 600 hours a year, less than the OECD average of 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In Austria close to 9% of employees work very long hours, in line with the OECD average. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in Austria 13% of men work very long hours, compared with 4% for women.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Austria devote 64% of their day, or 14.5 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – less than the OECD average of 14.9 hours. Fewer hours in paid work for women do not necessarily result in greater leisure time. In Austria, men devote nearly 15 hours per day to personal care and leisure and women approximately 14 hours per day.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Belgium

Key Findings

People spend one-tenth to one-fifth of their time on unpaid work. The distribution of tasks within the family is still influenced by gender roles: men in Belgium spend 151 minutes per day cooking, cleaning or caring, more than the OECD average of 131 minutes but considerably less than Belgian women who spend 245 minutes per day on average on domestic work.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Belgium work 1 577 hours a year, less than the OECD average of 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In Belgium, 4% of employees work very long hours, less than the OECD average of 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in Belgium 7% of men work very long hours, compared with 2% for women.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Belgium devote 70% of their day, or 15.7 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) more than the OECD average of 14.9 hours. Fewer hours in paid work for women do not necessarily result in greater leisure time. In Belgium, both men and women devote approximately 16 hours per day to personal care and leisure.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Brazil

Key Findings

An important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In Brazil, almost 13% of employees work very long hours, more than the OECD average of 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in Brazil 15% of men work very long hours, compared with 9% for women.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Canada

Key Findings

People spend one-tenth to one-fifth of their time on unpaid work. The distribution of tasks within the family is still influenced by gender roles: men are more likely to spend more hours in paid work, while women spend longer in unpaid domestic work. Men in Canada spend 146 minutes per day cooking, cleaning or caring, more than the OECD average of 131 minutes but considerably less than Canadian women who spend 248 minutes per day on average on domestic work.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Canada work 1 702 hours a year, less than the OECD average of 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In Canada, almost 4% of employees work very long hours, less than the OECD average of 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in Canada 6% of men work very long hours, compared with 1% for women.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Canada devote 64% of their day, or 14.3 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – less than the OECD average of 14.9 hours. Fewer hours in paid work for women do not necessarily result in greater leisure time. In Canada, both men and women devote approximately 14 hours per day to personal care and leisure.

Better Policies for Better Lives

Childcare support could help vulnerable families

Canada performs well in a number of key family indicators: fertility rates (1.7 children per women), gender pay gaps (20% at median earnings) and child poverty (at almost 15%) are all close to the OECD average. Female employment is higher than most OECD countries and children’s educational achievement as measured by PISA reading literacy values is amongst the highest in the OECD. However, childcare enrolment of children under age six, at 40%, lags behind OECD standards.

Canada is a federal country and each province has different policies in this area. Of the Provinces, Québec arguably has the most comprehensive mix of family-friendly policies, including childcare and out-of-school childcare support, in-work benefits for parents, and paternity leave. However, affordability and quality in childcare remains an issue across Canada.

Particularly vulnerable are sole parents, whose childcare costs are amongst the highest in the OECD. Providing greater investment in childcare would both reduce costs of childcare to parents and increase the quality of service, with positive effects on child development.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Chile

Key Findings

An important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Chile work 2 047 hours a year, one of the highest levels in the OECD where the average is 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In Chile, however, more than 16% of employees work very long hours, compared with an OECD average of 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in Chile 20% of men work very long hours, compared with 10% for women.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Czech Republic

Key Findings

An important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in the Czech Republic work 1 774 hours a year, close to the OECD average of 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In the Czech Republic, almost 8% of employees work very long hours, slightly less than the OECD average of 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in the Czech Republic 11% of men work very long hours, compared with 3% for women.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Denmark

Key Findings

People spend one-tenth to one-fifth of their time on unpaid work. The distribution of tasks within the family is still influenced by gender roles: men are more likely to spend more hours in paid work, while women spend longer in unpaid domestic work. Men in Denmark spend 186 minutes per day cooking, cleaning or caring, more than the OECD average of 131 minutes but still less than Danish women who spend 243 minutes per day on average on domestic work.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Denmark work 1 522 hours a year, less than the OECD average of 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In Denmark, less than 2% of employees work very long hours, much less than the OECD average of 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in Denmark 3% of men work very long hours, compared with 1% for women.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Denmark devote 69% of their day, or 16.1 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – more than the OECD average of 14.9 hours. Fewer hours in paid work for women do not necessarily result in greater leisure time. In Denmark, both men and women devote approximately 16 hours per day to personal care and leisure.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Estonia

Key Findings

People spend one-tenth to one-fifth of their time on unpaid work. The distribution of tasks within the family is still influenced by gender roles: men are more likely to spend more hours in paid work, while women spend longer in unpaid domestic work. Men in Estonia spend 169 minutes per day cooking, cleaning or caring, more than the OECD average of 131 minutes but still less than Estonian women who spend 288 minutes per day on average on domestic work.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Estonia work 1 924 hours a year, much more than the OECD average of 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In Estonia, about 4% of employees work very long hours, less than the OECD average of 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in Estonia 6% of men work very long hours, compared with 3% of women.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Estonia devote 64% of their day, or 14.2 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) less than the OECD average of 14.9 hours. Fewer hours in paid work for women do not necessarily result in greater leisure time. In Estonia, men devote nearly 15 hours per day to personal care and leisure and women approximately 14 hours.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Finland

Key Findings

People spend one-tenth to one-fifth of their time on unpaid work. The distribution of tasks within the family is still influenced by gender roles: men are more likely to spend more hours in paid work, while women spend longer in unpaid domestic work. Men in Finland spend 154 minutes per day cooking, cleaning or caring, more than the OECD average of 131 minutes but still less than Finnish women who spend 245 minutes per day on average on domestic work.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Finland work 1 684 hours a year, less than the OECD average of 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In Finland, almost 4% of employees work very long hours, less than the OECD average of 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in Finland 6% of men work very long hours, compared with 2% for women.

Better Policies for Better Lives

The Finnish model of work and family reconciliation stands out in international comparison because of the manner in which it provides choice to parents with young children. Finnish policy reduces barriers to employment by ensuring all families with young children have access to a subsidised childcare place.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

France

Key Findings

People spend one-tenth to one-fifth of their time on unpaid work. The distribution of tasks within the family is still influenced by gender roles: men are more likely to spend more hours in paid work, while women spend longer in unpaid domestic work. Men in France, spend 136 minutes per day cooking, cleaning or caring, more than the OECD average of 131 minutes but still less than French women who spend 258 minutes per day on average on domestic work.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in France work 1 476 hours a year, much less than the OECD average of 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In France, around 9% of employees work very long hours, in line with the OECD average. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in France 12% of men work very long hours, compared with 5% for women.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in France devote 68% of their day, or 15.3 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – more than the OECD average of 14.9 hours. Fewer hours in paid work for women do not necessarily result in greater leisure time. In France, men devote nearly 16 hours per day to personal care and leisure and women approximately 15 hours per day.

Better Policies for Better Lives

Greater gender equality can be achieved in France

France performs well in a number of important dimensions of work-life balance: fertility is above the OECD average; the employment rate of women aged 25 to 54 is above the OECD average, and 80% of them work full-time; and despite a recent slight increase, child poverty concerns 8% of children aged from 0 to 17 and is well below the OECD average (12.75%). These positive outcomes go hand-in-hand with high investment in family policies across the different stages of childhood.

Despite these positive outcomes, access to the labour market of mothers of young or large families could be improved but would likely require a more equal share of caring activities between parents. A greater involvement of fathers in care activities after childbirth is likely to facilitate the return to work of mothers. However, fathers are currently not encouraged to take parental leave beyond the 10 days of paid paternity leave. French tax reliefs and benefits do help households to bear the cost of large families. However, these families can still be close to or fall below the poverty threshold when one parent does not work or is on parental leave. In France, parents of two or more children can leave employment or reduce working time after childbirth and receive a flat-rate childcare benefit for up to three years. Women with low earnings, and working hours that make it difficult to cope with childcare commitments, are more likely to completely stop working for three years and receive full-benefit.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Germany

Key Findings

People spend one-tenth to one-fifth of their time on unpaid work. The distribution of tasks within the family is still influenced by gender roles: men are more likely to spend more hours in paid work, while women spend longer in unpaid domestic work. Men in Germany spend 164 minutes per day cooking, cleaning or caring, more than the OECD average of 131 minutes but still less than German women who spend 269 minutes per day on average on domestic work.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Germany work 1 413 hours a year, one of the lowest rates in the OECD and much less than the average of 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In Germany, some 5% of employees work very long hours, less than the OECD average of 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in Germany 8% of men work very long hours, compared with 2% for women.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Germany devote 68% of their day, or 15.3 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – more than the OECD average of 14.9 hours. Fewer hours in paid work for women do not necessarily result in greater leisure time. In Germany, both men and women devote approximately 15 hours per day to personal care and leisure.

Better Policies for Better Lives

Addressing gender inequalities can help families grow

In 2009, only three countries in the OECD had fewer babies per woman than Germany. With a fertility rate of 1.36, compared to 1.74 on average in the OECD, Germany’s fertility rate has been below 1.5 children per woman since 1983.

In Germany, women often postpone having children, and they are 30 years old on average when they have their first child (a record high they share with women in the United Kingdom). Postponement increases the likelihood of not having children at all and childlessness in Germany is high: over 40% of German women aged 25 to 49 live in childless households (compared with an OECD average of 34%). Otherwise families are small: around half (52%) of all German families with children are one-child families compared with 44% on average across the OECD.

Women with high levels of educational attainment in Germany are most likely to postpone childbirth. The career costs for German women having children can be substantial: German mothers with adult children have, on average, earned less than half of the total working-life earnings of otherwise similar female employees.

At 25% of median earnings, gender pay gaps are well above the OECD average (16%). Mothers spend twice as much time on care than men (over 20% against less than 10%). For German policy to reconcile work and family life for both parents a number of serious barriers to female labour market participation need to be addressed. Germany is the only OECD country where the tax/benefit system does not favour second earners in families with children.

Germany has taken steps to increase fathers’ participation in child raising which will help more women engage with the labour market. The OECD commends Germany for the recent parental leave reform which is among the most generous of OECD systems with leave entitlements for the exclusive use by fathers.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Greece

Key Findings

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Greece work 2 032 hours a year, one of the highest rates in the OECD and much more than the OECD average of 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In Greece, some 5% of employees work very long hours, less than the OECD average of 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in Greece 6% of men work very long hours, compared with 4% for women.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Hungary

Key Findings

People spend one-tenth to one-fifth of their time on unpaid work. The distribution of tasks within the family is still influenced by gender roles: men are more likely to spend more hours in paid work, while women spend longer on unpaid domestic work. Men in Hungary, spend 127 minutes per day cooking, cleaning or caring, less than the OECD average of 131 minutes and less than half as long as Hungarian women, who spend 268 minutes per day on average on domestic work.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Hungary work 1 980 hours a year, more than the OECD average of 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In Hungary, some 3% of employees work very long hours, less than the OECD average of 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in Hungary 5% of men work very long hours, compared with 1% for women.

Better Policies for Better Lives

More support to families can boost fertility in Hungary

At 1.33 children per woman, the total fertility rate in Hungary is the 3rd lowest across the OECD (the average is 1.74). The decline in fertility started in the 1980s, and accelerated in the early 1990s. Since 2000, fertility rates stabilised in Hungary, while about half of the other OECD countries experienced an increase. Low fertility goes hand in hand with low employment among women. In 2010, the female employment rate was just below 50% (10 percentage points below the OECD average), and at 46% in 2007, the maternal employment rate was the lowest of the European OECD countries.

Low fertility and female employment rates are largely explained by insufficient support for parents to reconcile work and care commitments. Hungary is among the top OECD spenders on families with 3.3% of GDP allocated to family benefits in 2007. However, only 1/3 of these resources are spent on helping with childcare costs, while this share is above 43% in countries with higher fertility rates.

The prolonged duration of parental leave and the limited provision of childcare supports establish barriers to employment for many mothers. Parental leave can last up to 3 years (compared with 1.5 years on average across the OECD) and be combined with a cash-for-care payment; a parent of three or more children can even stay at home and receive this benefit until the youngest child is eight years old. Moreover, less than 9% of children under age 3 are enrolled in formal childcare services.

Hungary has recently introduced a tax relief for households with large number of children, which might have a positive influence on birth rates. However, the evidence from other countries is that a wider provision of formal childcare services is a more effective tool for helping parents with work and family commitments and thus raise birth rates.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Iceland

Key Findings

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Ireland

Key Findings

People spend one-tenth to one-fifth of their time on unpaid work. The distribution of tasks within the family is still influenced by gender roles: men are more likely to spend more hours in paid work, while women spend longer in unpaid domestic work. Men in Ireland spend 129 minutes per day cooking, cleaning or caring, less than the OECD average of 131 minutes and less than half the time Irish women spend on domestic work, at 296 minutes per day on average.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Ireland work 1 543 hours a year, less than the OECD average of 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In Ireland, some 4% of employees work very long hours, less than the OECD average of 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in Ireland 7% of men work very long hours, compared with 1% for women.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Israel

Key Findings

An important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Israel work 1 890 hours a year, more than the OECD average of 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. However, in Israel, close to 18% of employees work very long hours, one of the highest in the OECD where the average is 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in Israel 27% of men work very long hours, compared with 8% for women.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Italy

Key Findings

People spend one-tenth to one-fifth of their time on unpaid work. The distribution of tasks within the family is still influenced by gender roles: men are more likely to spend more hours in paid work, while women spend longer in unpaid domestic work. Men in Italy, spend 103 minutes per day cooking, cleaning or caring, less than the OECD average of 131 minutes and less than a third as long as Italian women, who spend 326 minutes per day on average on domestic work, one of the highest differences in the OECD.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Italy work 1 774 hours a year, close to the OECD average of 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In Italy, some 4% of employees work very long hours, less than the OECD average of 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in Italy 6% of men work very long hours, compared with 2% for women.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Italy devote 67% of their day, or 14.9 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – in line with the OECD average. Fewer hours in paid work for women do not necessarily result in greater leisure time. In Italy, men devote approximately 15 hours per day to personal care and leisure and women 14 hours per day.

Better Policies for Better Lives

Support to combine work and childrearing in Italy

Italy falls behind OECD averages on three key family indicators: female employment rates, fertility rates and child poverty. Compared with many other OECD countries, women in Italy find it difficult to combine motherhood with paid employment. In fact, women often have to choose between work and having children; the result is few children and low female employment rates: 47% compared with an OECD average of 60%.

Fertility rates have fallen sharply during the 1970s, and have stabilised around 1.4 children per women since the mid-1980s. Looking to pursue a career first, younger generations often postpone childbirth and as a result, increase the likelihood of not having children at all. In Italy about 24% of women born in 1965 have remained childless, compared to only 10% for French women of the same age. Italy spends around 1.4% of GDP for families with children, which is below the 2.2% invested in families on average across the OECD. Working parents can take up to 11 months of parental leave, including 5 months of maternity leave usually at full pay, but payment rates for the rest of the parental leave period are low. While 98% of children aged three to five years old attend school (Scuola dell’Infanza), only about 29% of all children under age 3 participate in formal childcare.

Working time flexibility plays a limited role in helping parents to reconcile their work and care commitments. However, less than 50% of companies with 10 or more employees provide flexi-time options to their employees, and 60% of employees have no control over their working times. When faced with limited access to out-of-school care services, holding a full-time job is difficult for parents. Childcare policies and workplace practices that reduce barriers to employment for mothers therefore can be strengthened to achieve better work and family outcomes.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Japan

Key Findings

People spend one-tenth to one-fifth of their time on unpaid work. The distribution of tasks within the family is still influenced by gender roles: men are more likely to spend more hours in paid work, while women spend longer in unpaid domestic work. Men in Japan, spend 59 minutes per day cooking, cleaning or caring, one of the lowest in the OECD where the average is 131 minutes. Japanese women spend more than four times longer per day than Japanese men on domestic work, with 269 minutes per day on average.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Japan devote 60% of their day, or nearly 14.0 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – less than the OECD average of 14.9 hours. Fewer hours in paid work for women do not necessarily result in greater leisure time. In Japan, both men and women devote approximately 14 hours per day to personal care and leisure.

Better Policies for Better Lives

Japan has fewer babies and lower female employment

Parents in Japan find it difficult to combine work and family commitments. Workplace practices, private costs (housing and juku), and social norms put pressure on young people. Hence, young Japanese postpone marriage, delay parenthood and often have fewer children than intended.

In 2009, only 4 countries in the OECD had fewer babies per woman than Japan. With a fertility rate of 1.37, compared to 1.74 on average in the OECD, Japan was among the “lowest-low” fertility countries. There has been a small rebound since 2005, but nevertheless the population has started to decline.

Japanese social policy has introduced several measures to reduce barriers to both parenting and employment. However, despite these efforts, policies such as childcare can be further developed. Increasing childcare provision and reducing private costs of out-of-school services are both crucial for parental employment. Japanese public spending on childcare and preschool services is the fourth lowest among OECD countries. Childcare constraints persist and enrolment rates for children under-3 (at 28%), although increasing, are still below the OECD average (31%).

Japanese workplace practices make it difficult for parents to combine work and family life, not least because of the long working hours. After the high cost of education, many educated Japanese women first want to establish regular employment before having children. Furthermore, once Japanese women leave the labour force to care for children, they often end up in non-regular employment, which is often low paid, part-time, and temporary. Parents who wish to get back to work need to have better opportunities to re-enter regular employment, otherwise, those who can afford to stay at home do so rather than return to a low-quality job. The result is fewer babies and lower female employment levels than the OECD average, at a time when Japan needs more working women to replace the aging working age population.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Korea

Key Findings

People spend one-tenth to one-fifth of their time on unpaid work. The distribution of tasks within the family is still influenced by gender roles: men are more likely to spend more hours in paid work, while women spend longer on unpaid domestic work. Men in Korea, spend 45 minutes per day cooking, cleaning or caring, one of the lowest in the OECD where the average is 131 minutes. This is five times less than Korean women, who spend 227 minutes per day on average on domestic work.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Korea devote 65% of their day, or 14.6 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – close to the OECD average of 14.9. In Korea, men devote approximately 15 hours per day to personal care and leisure and women 14 hours per day.

Better Policies for Better Lives

Too few babies and too little female employment

At 1.15 children per woman, Korea’s total fertility rate in 2009 was the lowest in the OECD. The decline in the fertility rate is mainly explained by married women having fewer children – families with three or more children have become rare in Korea – and a rise in the number of single women. Simply put, Korean women who are more educated, have jobs, and live in cities are likely to put off marriage.

In addition to the low fertility rate, the female employment rate was also low at 52.2% in 2009, well below the OECD average of 59.6%. Korea has the dual challenge of promoting female labour market participation and increasing fertility rates. Korea’s workplace practices (long working hours, socializing after work, little leave) make it difficult for parents to combine work and family life. After high private investments in education, many young Koreans first want to establish themselves in the regular employment before having children. However, once Korean women who have left the labour force to care for children, wish to return to work, they often end up in non-regular employment which is often low paid, part-time, and temporary. So if they can afford it, mothers will stay at home rather than return to a low-quality job. The result is too few babies and too little female employment, at a time when Korea needs more women in employment as its working age population is aging.

With female educational attainment levels now surpassing those of men, and with projected declines in the labour force, Korea’s economy needs to make a more efficient use of its investment in human capital to keep its economic engine going. However, with less than 1% of GDP allocated to family benefits, Korea is the OECD country with the lowest public expenditure on family benefits. Korea should further develop its paid childcare system to help working parents with the cost of young children. Additionally, Korea’s fathers should do more work at home to facilitate more women to be in work. In sum, there should be a greater role for flexible working-time arrangements, part-time employment opportunities, and performance-related pay to help Koreans better reconcile work and family life.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Luxembourg

Key Findings

An important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Luxembourg work 1 601 hours a year, less than the OECD average of 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In Luxembourg, some 3% of employees work very long hours, less than the OECD average of 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in Luxembourg 4% of men work very long hours, compared with 1% for women.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Mexico

Key Findings

People spend one-tenth to one-fifth of their time on unpaid work. The distribution of tasks within the family is still influenced by gender roles: men are more likely to spend more hours in paid work, while women spend longer on unpaid domestic work. Men in Mexico, spend 113 minutes per day cooking, cleaning or caring, less than the OECD average of 131 minutes and less than a third of the time spent by Mexican women on domestic work, 373 minutes per day on average.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Mexico work 2 250 hours a year, the highest rate in the OECD where the average is 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In Mexico, however, nearly 29% of employees work very long hours, one of the highest levels in the OECD where the average is 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in Mexico 35% of men work very long hours, compared with 18% for women.

Better Policies for Better Lives

More public support to families with children is needed

Mexico could strengthen its policies to enhance the well-being of families and children. Public support in family benefits and services are key for mobilising female employment, reducing poverty risks, promoting child development and improving gender equity.

Apart from Israel, Mexico has the highest child poverty rate in the OECD. More than 1 in 4 Mexican children lived in poor households in 2008 (25.8%); well above the OCED average of 1 in 8 (12.7%) children. In the early 2000s, child poverty rates fell noticeably in Mexico, in part due to an expansion of social programmes such as Oportunidades.

Child-related leave entitlements are limited. Maternity leave, although paid at 100% of last earnings, lasts just 12 weeks and only covers women in formal employment. No other form of parental leave, including for fathers, is available. Efforts to increase childcare (Programa de Estancias Infantiles para Madres Trabajadoras) and pre-school enrolment rates (by implementing compulsory pre-school education) have translated into higher participation rates. But more can be done, childcare enrolment rates among under-3’s remain considerably low (6% compared with an OECD average of 31%), and access to high quality and affordable care is central for facilitating parental employment.

Gender gaps in paid and unpaid work in Mexico are among the largest in the OECD area. Female employment rates, though modestly increasing, are the lowest in the OECD after Turkey (43% of Mexican women are in paid work compared to an OECD average of 60%). At home, Mexican women spend 4 hours per day more on unpaid work than men. Gender roles constitute a barrier to women’s and Mexico’s economic opportunities.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Netherlands

Key Findings

People spend one-tenth to one-fifth of their time on unpaid work. The distribution of tasks within the family is still influenced by gender roles: men are more likely to spend more hours in paid work, while women spend longer on unpaid domestic work. Men in the Netherlands, spend 163 minutes per day cooking, cleaning or caring, more than the OECD average of 131 minutes but still less than Dutch women, who spend 273 minutes per day on average on domestic work.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in the Netherlands work 1 379 hours a year, the lowest rate in the OECD where the average is of 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In the Netherlands, less than 1% of employees work very long hours, the lowest rate in the OECD where the average is 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in the Netherlands 1% of men work very long hours, compared with almost no women.

Better Policies for Better Lives

Dutch families are doing well as mothers take on dual roles

In the Netherlands, family and children policy outcomes are generally strong. Employment rates, parental education rates, and fertility rates are higher than OECD averages. In terms of children and youth, the Dutch have very low rates of youth unemployment, high reading literacy levels, below average levels of child income poverty, and high levels of life satisfaction in childhood (over 93% of 11-15 year old children report above average life satisfaction).

Many Dutch families share work responsibilities – the female employment rate is well above the OECD average (70% compared to 60% in the OECD on average), as is the mothers’ employment rate – but more often than not women work part-time. In the home, however, Dutch women spend almost 2 hours more per day working than men.

In the past two decades, the rise in female employment in the Netherlands has been rapid: in the early 80’s the rate was amongst the lowest in the OECD at around 35%, in 2009 it had doubled to over 70%. However, much of the increase in female employment has been on a part-time basis: over 55% of employed women work part-time. Part-time work is particularly common among employed mothers. This can add to the job satisfaction of these workers and free-up time for childcare, but often has negative consequences on career progression and underutilises women’s education and skills: young Dutch women are more educated than the OECD average, and more educated than Dutch men. In the Netherlands, a working mother with two grown up children has, on average, earned less than half of the total working-life earnings of otherwise similar female employees.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

New Zealand

Key Findings

People spend one-tenth to one-fifth of their time on unpaid work. The distribution of tasks within the family is still influenced by gender roles: men are more likely to spend more hours in paid work, while women spend longer on unpaid domestic work. Men in New Zealand, spend 158 minutes per day cooking, cleaning or caring, more than the OECD average of 131 minutes but still considerably less than New Zealand women who spend 294 minutes per day on average on domestic work.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in New Zealand work 1 762 hours a year, lower than the OECD average of 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. However, in New Zealand, some 13% of employees work very long hours, more than the OECD average of 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in New Zealand 20% of men work very long hours, compared with 6% for women.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in New Zealand devote 65% of their day, or 14.9 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – in line with the OECD average. Fewer hours in paid work for women do not necessarily result in greater leisure time. In New Zealand, both men and women devote approximately 15 hours per day to personal care and leisure.

Better Policies for Better Lives

High fertility and female employment rates, but challenges for single parents

New Zealand has experienced a steady growth in the female employment rate, which currently stands at 67%, well above the OECD average of 60%. Rising female employment has been coupled with rising wages for women too; the gender-wage gap, at 8%, is currently the 3rd lowest in the OECD, and half the OECD average. The total fertility rate has also increased over the last decade and is now well above the OECD average of 1.74 children per woman. High fertility and female employment rates in New Zealand, suggest overall compatibility between work and family life. However, Maori and Pacific ethnic groups combine high fertility rates with much lower female employment rates.

Although the overall spending per child fell between 2003 and 2007, there has been a welcome increase in early-childhood spending and childcare provision. The increase in spending on children aged 0-5 years as a share of spending on all children was one of the largest in the OECD.

Overall, child outcomes in New Zealand are mixed: the child poverty rate, at 12.2%, is around the 12.7% OECD average, infant deaths have fallen while proportion of low-weight births has also decreased. PISA reading scores are the fourth highest in the OECD. But the proportion of older children not in education or employment, at 9.3 is higher than the OECD average of 8.0%.

A good package of policies, including flexible workplace practices and affordable early childhood care and education services, helps New Zealand families to reconcile work and family and female life. Part-time work is a common working practice used by New Zealand mothers who reduce their working hours when their child is young but return to full-time work when the child starts school.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Norway

Key Findings

People spend one-tenth to one-fifth of their time on unpaid work. The distribution of tasks within the family is still influenced by gender roles: men are more likely to spend more hours in paid work, while women spend longer on unpaid domestic work. Men in Norway, spend 152 minutes per day cooking, cleaning or caring, more than the OECD average of 131 minutes but still less than Norwegian women who spend 225 minutes per day on average on domestic work.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Norway work 1 426 hours a year, one of the lowest rates in the OECD and much less than the OECD average of 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In Norway, some 3% of employees work very long hours, less than the OECD average of 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in Norway 4% of men work very long hours, compared with 1% for women.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Norway devote 68% of their day, or 15.6 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – more than the OECD average of 14.9 hours. In Norway, both men and women devote approximately 16 hours per day to personal care and leisure.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Poland

Key Findings

People spend one-tenth to one-fifth of their time on unpaid work. The distribution of tasks within the family is still influenced by gender roles: men are more likely to spend more hours in paid work, while women spend longer on unpaid domestic work. Men in Poland, spend 157 minutes per day cooking, cleaning or caring, more than the OECD average of 131 minutes but still considerably less than Polish women who spend 296 minutes per day on average on domestic work.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Poland work 1 937 hours a year, more than the OECD average of 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In Poland, some 7% of employees work very long hours, less than the OECD average of 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in Poland 11% of men work very long hours, compared with 3% for women.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Poland devote 66% of their day, or 14.2 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – less than the OECD average of 14.9 hours. Fewer hours in paid work for women do not necessarily result in greater leisure time. In Poland, both men and women devote approximately 14 hours per day to personal care and leisure.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Portugal

Key Findings

People spend one-tenth to one-fifth of their time on unpaid work. The distribution of tasks within the family is still influenced by gender roles: men are more likely to spend more hours in paid work, while women spend longer on unpaid domestic work. Men in Portugal, spend 96 minutes per day cooking, cleaning or caring, less than the OECD average of 131 minutes and less than a third as long as Portuguese women who spend 328 minutes per day on average on domestic work, one of the highest differences in the OECD.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Portugal work 1 711 hours a year, less than the OECD average of 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In Portugal, almost 9% of employees work very long hours, in line with the OECD average. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in Portugal 12% of men work very long hours, compared with 5% for women.

Better Policies for Better Lives

Portuguese families need further childcare support

For over a generation of families, fertility rates in Portugal have been falling. Today, only one other OECD country has a lower fertility rate (Korea). Sustainable fertility is important to ensure aging populations don’t threaten Portugal’s welfare systems and future productivity.

In reality, the Portuguese problem is not that families have no children, but rather families not having more than one child. Childlessness is low in Portugal, less than one in ten women aged 49+ have no children, but around half of all Portuguese families are one-child families. To improve fertility rates, Portuguese families need more support when caring for young children.

Recent parental leave reform has helped both mothers and fathers to spend more time with their newborns, as well as promoting gender equity through financial incentives to share parental leave. Pre-school childcare enrolment in Portugal has tripled in the last decade, it now stands at around 65% (OECD average is 58.2%).

Portugal should try to invest more of their public family budget towards early support for children, even in times when budget pressures are at their highest. Investment on child services is essential to enable families to flourish, for future welfare state sustainability and for economic growth. Portugal is already spending less than the OECD average at each stage of childhood. Reported spending on children in their early years is less than half of the OECD average (EUR 11 500 per child compared to EUR 24 900) and mid- and late- childhood spending lag behind OECD levels by around one-third and one-quarter respectively.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Russian Federation

Key Findings

An important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in the Russian Federation work 1 981 hours a year, more than the OECD average of 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In the Russian Federation only some 0.2% of employees work very long hours, much less than the OECD average of 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work across the OECD. In Russia however, there is hardly any difference.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Slovak Republic

Key Findings

An important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in the Slovak Republic work 1 793 hours a year, more than the OECD average of 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In the Slovak Republic, some 6% of employees work very long hours, less than the OECD average of 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in the Slovak Republic 9% of men work very long hours, compared with 3% for women.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Slovenia

Key Findings

People spend one-tenth to one-fifth of their time on unpaid work. The distribution of tasks within the family is still influenced by gender roles: men are more likely to spend more hours in paid work, while women spend longer on unpaid domestic work. Men in Slovenia, spend 166 minutes per day cooking, cleaning or caring, more than the OECD average of 131 minutes but still less than Slovenian women who spend 286 minutes per day on average on domestic work.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Slovenia work 1 662 hours a year, less than the OECD average of 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In Slovenia, nearly 6% of employees work very long hours, less than the OECD average of 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in Slovenia 8% of men work very long hours, compared with 3% for women.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Slovenia devote 65% of their day, or 14.6 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – slightly less than the OECD average of 14.9 hours. Fewer hours in paid work for women do not necessarily result in greater leisure time. In Slovenia, men devote approximately 15 hours per day to personal care and leisure and women 14 hours per day.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Spain

Key Findings

People spend one-tenth to one-fifth of their time on unpaid work. The distribution of tasks within the family is still influenced by gender roles: men are more likely to spend more hours in paid work, while women spend longer on unpaid domestic work. Men in Spain spend 107 minutes per day cooking, cleaning or caring, less than the OECD average of 131 minutes and less than half the time spent by Spanish women on domestic work, 294 minutes per day on average.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Spain work 1 690 hours a year, less than the OECD average of 1 776. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In Spain, some 6% of employees work very long hours, less than the OECD average of 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in Spain 9% of men work very long hours, compared with 4% for women.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Spain devote 67% of their day, or 15.8 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – more than the OECD average of 14.9 hours. Fewer hours in paid work for women do not necessarily result in greater leisure time. In Spain, men devote approximately 16 hours per day to personal care and leisure and women 15 hours per day.

Better Policies for Better Lives

Spain should strengthen its policies to combine work and family life

Families in Spain find it difficult to combine work and family life, both female employment rates and fertility rates are low in international comparison. At only 1.4 children per woman, fertility rates in Spain have been amongst the lowest in the OECD for the past two decades. Increasingly, women and men first want to establish themselves in the labour market before having children. This has led to a postponement of childbirth and the average age of first childbirth for mothers is now close to 30. Low fertility rates are also related to a fall in the number of large families and a significant proportion of women remaining childless.

Female employment in Spain has risen markedly over recent years, from 32.5% in 1995 to 53% today. However, despite this important increase, female employment in Spain is still below the OECD average (60%); 75% of mothers go back to work only 8 years after childbirth. Governmental efforts in extending coverage and providing support to families to reduce the cost of childcare have led to an important increase in childcare participation. In 2008, 66.9% of children under 6 years old were enrolled in childcare services (the OECD average is 58.2%). However, out-of-school-hours care is limited and many working parents rely on informal providers: about a quarter of grandparents in Spain take care of their grandchildren on a daily basis.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Sweden

Key Findings

People spend one-tenth to one-fifth of their time on unpaid work. The distribution of tasks within the family is still influenced by gender roles: men are more likely to spend more hours in paid work, while women spend longer on unpaid domestic work. Men in Sweden, spend 177 minutes per day cooking, cleaning or caring, more than the OECD average of 131 minutes but still less than Swedish women who spend 249 minutes per day on average on domestic work.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Sweden work 1 644 hours a year, less than the OECD average of 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In Sweden, about 1% of employees work very long hours, much less than the OECD average of 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in Sweden 2% of men work very long hours, compared with 1% for women.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Sweden devote 65% of their day, or 15.1 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – slightly more than the OECD average of 14.9 hours. Fewer hours in paid work for women do not necessarily result in greater leisure time. In Sweden, both men and women devote approximately 15 hours per day to personal care and leisure.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Switzerland

Key Findings

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Switzerland work 1 632 hours a year, less than the OECD average of 1 741 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In Switzerland, around 6% of employees work very long hours, less than the OECD average of 9%.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Turkey

Key Findings

People spend one-tenth to one-fifth of their time on unpaid work. The distribution of tasks within the family is still influenced by gender roles: men are more likely to spend more hours in paid work, while women spend longer on unpaid domestic work. Men in Turkey, spend 116 minutes per day cooking, cleaning or caring, less than the OECD average of 131 minutes and less than a third of the time spent by Turkish women on domestic work, 377 minutes per day on average. This is one of the highest differences in the OECD .

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Turkey work 1 877 hours a year, more than the OECD average of 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In Turkey, however, 46% of employees work very long hours, by far the highest rate in the OECD where the average is 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in Turkey 50% of men work very long hours, compared with 35% of women.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

United Kingdom

Key Findings

People spend one-tenth to one-fifth of their time on unpaid work. The distribution of tasks within the family is still influenced by gender roles: men are more likely to spend more hours in paid work, while women spend longer on unpaid domestic work. Men in the United Kingdom, spend 150 minutes per day cooking, cleaning or caring, more than the OECD average of 131 minutes but still less than English women who spend 273 minutes per day on average on domestic work.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in the United Kingdom work 1 625 hours a year, less than the OECD average of 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In the United Kingdom, some 12% of employees work very long hours, more than the OECD average of 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in the United Kingdom 18% of men work very long hours, compared with 6% for women.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in the United Kingdom devote 66% of their day, or 14.8 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – close to the OECD average of 14.9 hours. Fewer hours in paid work for women do not necessarily result in greater leisure time. In the United Kingdom, both men and women devote approximately 15 hours per day to personal care and leisure.

Better Policies for Better Lives

Early investment is needed to meet UK poverty targets

Between 2003 and 2007 the UK strengthened its position as one of the biggest investors in families in the OECD. Early childhood spending rose substantially, driven by new cash supports for children around birth and increased investment on childcare services. In 2007 the UK spent more on children than most OECD countries, at just over 138 000 pounds sterling per child from birth up to the age of 18, compared to an OECD average of just under 95 000 pounds. Before the financial crisis, and during a period of increased investment (1995 to 2005), child poverty in the UK fell more than in any other OECD country (in 2005 it was 10.5%, down from 17.4% in 1995, compared to an OECD average of 12.7%); in the same period the growth in average family income was third highest in the OECD.

Today, spending cuts, such as cutting benefits for pregnancy and childbirth, and a freeze on child cash benefits, will affect many families. Progress in child poverty reduction in the UK has stalled, and is now predicted to increase; social protection spending on families therefore needs to be protected. Providing services such as affordable and good quality local day-care centres, with flexible opening hours, is key to helping families with children on low-incomes into work.

To this end, the plan outlined in the UK Child Poverty Strategy to extend the 15 hours of free early education services to disadvantaged children as young as two years old is a positive step for well-being of these children and the job prospects of their parents. Nonetheless childcare costs can remain a barrier to work for parents higher up the income scale, and there is room in UK policy for an effective childcare supplement for working parents.

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

United States

Key Findings

People spend one-tenth to one-fifth of their time on unpaid work. The distribution of tasks within the family is still influenced by gender roles: men are more likely to spend more hours in paid work, while women spend longer on unpaid domestic work. Men in the United States, spend 154 minutes per day cooking, cleaning or caring, more than the OECD average of 131 minutes but still less than American women who spend 258 minutes per day on average on domestic work.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in the United States work 1 787 hours a year, slightly more than the OECD average of 1 776 hours. The share of employees working more than 50 hours per week is not very large across OECD countries. In the United States, about 11% of employees work very long hours, more than the OECD average of 9%. Overall, men spend more hours in paid work: in the United States 16% of men work very long hours, compared with 6% for women.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in the United States devote 66% of their day, or 14.3 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – less than the OECD average of 14.9 hours. Fewer hours in paid work for women do not necessarily result in greater leisure time. In the United States, both men and women devote approximately 14 hours per day to personal care and leisure.

Better Policies for Better Lives

Reducing poverty among working families

OECD analysis suggests that the US could help working families to reduce poverty rates by strengthening services and benefits for children in their early years, including legislating for paid parental leave, and building on the successes of child education and care services, such as the Headstart programme.

Families in the US understand the value of a good head start. In the US, total public spending on child welfare and education is USD 160 000 up to the age of 18, above the OECD average of USD 149 000. But the US leaves it late, spending the most money on public compulsory education. This means early investment – including childcare and support for families around the time of birth – could be strengthened.

The US, for example, is the only OECD country without a national paid parental leave policy, although some states do provide leave payments. Available parental leave is short (12 weeks), and only covers some employees (those in companies with 50+ workers). While making changes will involve a cost to employers, there will be benefits not only to child well-being but also the labour market, as evidence suggests that when US mothers take their full leave entitlement, they are more likely to return to work than mothers who do not.

Leave is short for a reason: US family well-being is strongly linked to employment because a significant proportion of public family support is delivered via tax breaks and credits (45% of total compared to 10% on average in the OECD). Nevertheless female employment in the US has been falling for the last decade, albeit from high levels. This fall is happening despite US women having better career prospects compared to most other OECD countries (35% of management jobs occupied by women) and lower career costs associated with child-rearing (where mothers earn over 80% of non-mothers’ earnings over a working life).

Indicators

Please activate Javascript to experience the interactive bar charts.

Background

Top Ranking

Indicators

Work-Life Balance in Detail by Country

Key Findings

Better Policies for Better Lives

Indicators

Key Findings

Indicators

Key Findings

Indicators

Key Findings

Indicators

Key Findings

Better Policies for Better Lives

Indicators

Key Findings

Indicators

Key Findings

Indicators

Key Findings

Indicators

Key Findings

Indicators

Key Findings

Better Policies for Better Lives

Indicators

Key Findings

Better Policies for Better Lives

Indicators

Key Findings

Better Policies for Better Lives

Indicators

Key Findings

Indicators

Key Findings

Better Policies for Better Lives

Indicators

Key Findings

Indicators

Key Findings

Indicators

Key Findings

Indicators

Key Findings

Better Policies for Better Lives

Indicators

Key Findings

Better Policies for Better Lives

Indicators

Key Findings

Better Policies for Better Lives

Indicators

Key Findings

Indicators

Key Findings

Better Policies for Better Lives

Indicators

Key Findings

Better Policies for Better Lives

Indicators

Key Findings

Better Policies for Better Lives

Indicators

Key Findings

Indicators

Key Findings

Indicators

Key Findings

Better Policies for Better Lives

Indicators

Key Findings

Indicators

Key Findings

Indicators

Key Findings

Indicators

Key Findings

Better Policies for Better Lives

Indicators