Turkey

Did You Know?

Population
74.8
mil.
Visitors per year
25.0
mil.
Renewable energy
10.57
%

How’s Life?

Turkey has made considerable progress in improving the quality of life of its citizens over the last two decades. Notwithstanding, Turkey ranks low in a large number of topics relative to most other countries in the Better Life Index.

Money, while it cannot buy happiness, is an important means to achieving higher living standards. In Turkey, the average person earns less than the OECD average of 22 387 USD a year. There is a considerable gap between the richest and poorest – the top 20% of the population earn eight times as much as the bottom 20%.

In terms of employment, 46% of people aged 15 to 64 in Turkey have a paid job, lower than the OECD employment average of 66%. Some 67% of men are in paid work, compared with 26% of women. People in Turkey work 1877 hours a year, more than most people in the OECD who work 1749 hours. 43% of employees work very long hours, much higher than the OECD average of 9%, with 49% of men working very long hours compared with 34% for women.

Having a good education is an important requisite for finding a job. In Turkey, 33% of adults aged 25-64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, much lower than the OECD average of 74%. This is truer of men than women, as 35% of men have successfully completed high-school compared with 26% of women. This difference is higher than the OECD average and suggests women’s participation in higher education could be strengthened. In terms of the quality of the educational system, the average student scored 455 in reading literacy, maths and science in the OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), lower than the OECD average of 497.On average in Turkey, girls outperformed boys by 15 points, more than the average OECD gap of 9 points.

In terms of health, life expectancy at birth in Turkey is 74 years, six years lower than the OECD average of 80 years. Life expectancy for women is 77 years, compared with 72 for men. The level of atmospheric PM10 – tiny air pollutant particles small enough to enter and cause damage to the lungs –is 37 micrograms per cubic meter, considerably higher than the OECD average of 22 micrograms per cubic meter. Turkey also performs below the OECD average in terms of water quality, as 65% of people say they are satisfied with the quality of their water, below the OECD average of 85%.

Concerning the public sphere, there is a moderate sense of community and high levels of civic participation in Turkey, where 69% of people believe that they know someone they could rely on in time of need, less than the OECD average of 91%. Voter turnout, a measure of public trust in government and of citizens’ participation in the political process, was 83% during recent elections; this figure is higher than the OECD average of 73%.

In general, Turks are less satisfied with their lives than the OECD average, with 68% of people saying they have more positive experiences in an average day (feelings of rest, pride in accomplishment, enjoyment, etc) than negative ones (pain, worry, sadness, boredom, etc). This figure is much lower than the OECD average of 80%.

Topics

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Turkey in Detail

Housing

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Key Findings

Living in satisfactory housing conditions is one of the most important aspects of people’s lives. Housing is essential to meet basic needs, such as shelter, but it is not just a question of four walls and a roof. Housing should offer a place to sleep and rest where people feel safe and have privacy and personal space; somewhere they can raise a family. All of these elements help make a house a home. And of course there is the question whether people can afford adequate housing.

Housing costs take up a large share of the household budget and represent the largest single expenditure for many individuals and families, by the time you add up elements such as rent (or loan repayments for those buying their own home), gas, electricity, water, furniture or repairs In Turkey, the percentage of their net disposable income households spend on average on keeping a roof over their heads is about the same as the OECD average of 22%.

In addition to housing costs it is also important to examine living conditions, such as the average number of rooms shared per person and whether households have access to basic facilities. In Turkey, 67% of people say they are satisfied with their current housing situation, much lower than the OECD average of 87% and the lowest level amongst OECD countries. This low level of subjective satisfaction reflects Turkey’s mixed performance in objective housing indicators.

The number of rooms in a dwelling, divided by the number of persons living there, indicates whether residents are living in crowded conditions. Overcrowded housing may have a negative impact on physical and mental health, relations with others and the development of children. In addition, dense living conditions are often a sign of inadequate water and sewage supply. In Turkey, the average home contains 0.9 rooms per person, less than the OECD average of 1.6 rooms per person and the lowest rate across the OECD. In terms of basic facilities, an estimated 87.3% of people in Turkey live in dwellings with private access to indoor flushing toilets, lower than the OECD average 97.8% and the lowest rate across OECD countries.

Indicators

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Income

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Key Findings

While money may not buy happiness, it is an important means to achieving higher living standards and thus greater well-being. Higher economic wealth may also improve access to quality education, healthcare and housing.

Household net-adjusted disposable income is the amount of money that a household earns each year after tax. It represents the money available to a household for spending on goods or services. In Turkey, the average household net-adjusted disposable income is lower than the OECD average of 22 387USD.

Household financial wealth is the total value of a household’s financial worth. In Turkey, the average household wealth is lower than the OECD average of 36 238 USD. While the ideal measure of household wealth should include real assets (e.g. land and dwellings), such information is currently available for only a small number of OECD countries.

Despite a general increase in living standards across OECD countries over the past fifteen years, not all people have benefited from this to the same extent. In Turkey, the income of the top 20% of the population is 25 894 USD a year, whereas the bottom 20% live on 3 179 USD a year.

Indicators

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Jobs

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one’s own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Turkey, more than 46% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is much lower than the OECD employment average of 66%, and the lowest rate in the OECD. Employment rates are generally higher for the better-off in society than the worst-off; in Turkey 72% of the top 20% of the population has a paid job, compared with 42% for the bottom 20%. This 30% difference is slightly lower than the OECD average 35% and suggests the job market in Turkey is relatively inclusive.

Women are still less likely than men to participate in the labour market. In Turkey, 26% of women have jobs. This is much less than the OECD average of 59% and the 67% employment rate of men in Turkey. This 41% gender difference is much higher than the OECD average of 13% and the highest amongst OECD countries. This suggests employment opportunities for women could be improved.

Young Turkish people aged 15-24 also face difficulties with an unemployment rate of 21.7%, higher than the OECD average 16.7%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Turkey, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at 3.4%, close to the OECD average of 3.0%. There is little difference on average between men and women in the OECD area when it comes to long-term unemployment. In Turkey, however, the difference is relatively high with an unemployment rate of 2.8% for men and 4.8% for women.

 

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. In Turkey, people earn 22 397 US dollars per year on average, much less than the OECD average 34 033 US dollars.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security. Employees working on temporary contracts are more vulnerable than workers with an open-ended contract. In Turkey, close to 23% of total employees have a contract of 6 months or less, higher than the OECD-30 average of 10%. This figure suggests greater stabilisation of working contracts could be encouraged for Turkish employees.

Indicators

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Community

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Key Findings

Humans are social creatures. The frequency of our contact with others and the quality of our personal relationships are thus crucial determinants of our well-being. Helping others can also make you happier. Nearly 36% reported having helped a stranger in the last month, lower than the OECD average of 47% .

A strong social network, or community, can provide emotional support during both good and bad times as well as provide access to jobs, services and other material opportunities. In Turkey, 69% of people believe that they know someone they could rely on in a time of need, the lowest rate in the OECD, where the average is 91%. There is a slight difference between men and women, as 71% of men believe they have this kind of social support, compared with 68% of women. While gender has little impact on social network support, there is a clear relationship between the availability of social support on the one hand, and people’s education and income, on the other . In Turkey, around 60% of the bottom 20% report having someone to count on for help in times of need, compared to over 76% for the top 20%.

 

Indicators

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Education

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Key Findings

A well-educated and well-trained population is essential for a country’s social and economic well-being. Education plays a key role in providing individuals with the knowledge, skills and competences needed to participate effectively in society and in the economy. Most concretely, having a good education greatly improves the likelihood of finding a job and earning enough money. Across OECD countries, men with university-level degrees are 18% more likely to find jobs, and women are 32% more likely. Lifetime earnings also increase with each level of education.

Following a decline in manual labour over previous decades, employers now favour a more educated labour force. High-school graduation rates therefore provide a good indication of whether a country is preparing its students to meet the minimum requirements of the job market.

In Turkey, 33% of adults aged 25-64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, much lower than the OECD average of 74% and one of the lowest rates across OECD countries. This is truer of men than women, as 35% of men have successfully completed high-school compared with 26% of women. This 9% difference is much higher than the OECD average of 2% and suggests women’s participation in secondary education could be strengthened. Among younger people – a better indicator of Turkey’s future – 42% of 25-34 year-olds have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, also lower than the OECD average of 81% but showing progress.

Turkish people can expect to go through 14 years of education between the ages of 5 and 39, less than the OECD average of 17 years and the lowest level amongst OECD countries, echoing Turkey’s lower educational attainment levels.

But graduation rates, while important, speak little to the quality of education received. The OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) reviews the extent to which students have acquired some of the knowledge and skills that are essential for full participation in modern societies. In 2009, PISA focused on examining students’ reading ability, skills in maths and level in sciences, as research shows that these skills are more reliable predictors of economic and social well-being than the number of years spent in school.

The average student in Turkey scored 455 in reading literacy, maths and sciences, lower than the OECD average of 497. On average, girls outperformed boys by 15 points, more than the average OECD gap of 9 points.

The best-performing school systems manage to provide high-quality education to all students. In Turkey, the average difference in results, between the top 20% and bottom 20%, is of 106 points, higher than the OECD average of 99 points. This suggests the school system in Turkey tends to provide higher quality education for the better off.

Indicators

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Environment

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Key Findings

The quality of our local living environment has a direct impact on our health. Having access to green spaces for example, is essential for quality of life. An unspoiled environment is a source of satisfaction, improves mental well-being, allows people to recover from the stress of everyday life and to perform physical activity. In Turkey, 33% of people feel they lack access to green spaces, much more than the European average of 12%.

Outdoor air pollution is one important environmental issue that directly affects the quality of peoples’ lives. Despite national and international interventions and decreases in major pollutant emissions, the health impacts of urban air pollution continue to worsen with air pollution set to become the top environmental cause of premature mortality globally by 2050.

Air pollution in urban centres, often caused by transport and the use of small-scale burning of wood or coal, is linked to a range of health problems, from minor eye irritation to upper respiratory symptoms in the short-term and chronic respiratory diseases such as asthma, cardiovascular diseases and lung cancer in the long-term. Children and the elderly may be particularly vulnerable.

PM10 – tiny particulate matter small enough to be inhaled into the deepest part of the lung – is monitored in OECD countries because it can harm human health and reduce life expectancy. In Turkey, PM10 levels are 37.1 micrograms per cubic meter, much higher than the OECD average of 22 micrograms per cubic meter.

Access to clean water is fundamental to human well-being. Despite significant progress in OECD countries in reducing water pollution, improvements in freshwater quality are not always easy to discern. In Turkey, 65% of people say they are satisfied with water quality. This score is much lower than the OECD average of 85% and suggests Turkey still faces difficulties in providing good quality water to its inhabitants.

Better Policies for Better Lives

Undersea rail tunnel to combat air pollution in Istanbul

Istanbul’s growing traffic jams are not just a city transport headache, they also result in high levels of air pollution from vehicle exhausts. To reduce local air pollution, traffic congestion and energy consumption, the Istanbul municipality has launched a number of urban public transport projects. For example, the 8 km subway line which opened in 2000 is being extended, as are the light rail (Hafif-Metro) and tramway systems.

Istanbul is also implementing one of the worlds’ major transport infrastructure projects that aims to upgrade 63 km of the commuter rail system and build a 13 km rail crossing under the Istanbul Strait (Bosphorus). In addition to reducing congestion, the Marmaray project is expected to improve air quality by reducing vehicle traffic on the two existing bridges that span the Bosphorus. However, to reap maximum environmental benefit from the Marmaray project, complementary actions should be undertaken such as active traffic management on bridge crossings and tight controls on parking

Indicators

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Civic Engagement

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Key Findings

A cohesive society is one where citizens have a high degree of confidence in their governmental institutions and public administration. In Turkey, 57% of people say they trust their political institutions, close to the OECD average of 56%. High voter turnout is another measure of public trust in government and of citizens’ participation in the political process. In the most recent elections for which data is available, voter turnout in Turkey was 83% of those registered. This figure is much higher than the OECD average of 73%.

Ensuring that government decision making is not compromised by conflicts of interest is key to maintaining trust in government. Transparency is therefore essential to hold government to account and to maintain confidence in public institutions.

Freedom of information laws (FOI) allow the possibility for individuals to access undisclosed information. For such policies to be successful, the public should have a clear understanding of their rights under the law, should be able to file requests with ease and should be protected against any possible retaliation. People in Turkey can file a request for information either in writing, online, or in person – thus greatly facilitating the FOI process. However, there are no provisions for anonymity or protection from retaliation.

Indicators

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Health

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Key Findings

Most OECD countries have enjoyed large gains in life expectancy over the past decades, thanks to improvements in living conditions, public health interventions and progress in medical care. Among OECD countries, Turkey registered one of the greatest gains in life expectancy between 1960 and 2008, with an overall increase in longevity of 25 years, rapidly narrowing the gap with the average across OECD countries. In 2010, life expectancy at birth for the whole population in Turkey stood at 74 years, below the OECD average of 80 years. Life expectancy for women is 77 years, compared with 72 for men, lower than the average OECD gap of 6 years

Higher life expectancy is generally associated with higher healthcare spending per person, although many other factors have an impact on life expectancy (such as living standards, lifestyles, education and environmental factors). Total health spending accounted for 6.1% of GDP in Turkey in 2008, below the average of 9.7% across OECD countries in 2008. Health spending tends to rise with income: in general, OECD countries with higher GDP per person tend to spend more on health. Given that Turkey has the lowest GDP per person among OECD countries, it is not surprising that it also spends the least per person, at 767 USD in 2007. This compares with an OECD average of 3060 USD in 2008.

Throughout the OECD, tobacco consumption and excessive weight gain remain two important risk factors for many chronic diseases.

Turkey has achieved some progress in reducing tobacco consumption, with the proportion of daily smokers among adults decreasing from 43.6% in 1989 to 27.4% in 2008. Still, smoking rates among adults in Turkey remain much higher than the OECD average of 23.3%.

 

In Turkey, the obesity rate among adults – based on self-reported height and weight – was 15.2% in 2008. This is much lower than for the United States (27.5% in 2008), but still slightly higher than average for the 21 OECD countries with self-reported data (14.9% in 2008). Obesity’s growing prevalence foreshadows increases in the occurrence of health problems (such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and asthma), and higher health care costs in the future.

When asked, “How is your health in general?” 66% of people in Turkey reported to be in good health, lower than the OECD average of 70%. Despite the subjective nature of this question, the answers have been found to be a good predictor of people’s future health care use . Gender, age and social status may affect answer to this question. On average in OECD countries, men are more likely to report good health than women, with an average of 72% for men and 67% for women. In Turkey, the average is 71% for men and 61% for women. Not surprisingly, older people report poorer health, as do those who are unemployed, or who have less education or income. In 2010, about 73% of the top 20% of the adult population in Turkey rated their health as ‘good’ or ‘very good’, compared to about 59% for the bottom 20%.

Indicators

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Life Satisfaction

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Key Findings

Happiness can be measured in terms of life satisfaction, the presence of positive experiences and feelings, and the absence of negative experiences and feelings. Such measures, while subjective, are a useful complement to compare the quality of life across countries.

Life satisfaction measures how people evaluate their life as a whole rather than their current feelings. It captures a reflective assessment of which life circumstances and conditions are important for subjective well-being. When asked to rate their general satisfaction with life on a scale from 0 to 10, Turkish people gave it a 5.3 grade, lower than the OECD average of 6.7.

There is little difference in life satisfaction levels between men and women across OECD countries. This is true in Turkey, where men gave their life a 5.1 grade and women 5.4. Social status does, however, strongly influence subjective well-being. Whereas the bottom 20% of the Turkish population have a life satisfaction level of 5.0, this score reaches 5.9 for the top 20% .

 

Happiness, or subjective well-being, is also defined as the presence of positive experiences and feelings, and/or the absence of negative experiences and feelings. In Turkey, 68% of people reported having more positive experiences in an average day (feelings of rest, pride in accomplishment, enjoyment, etc) than negative ones (pain, worry, sadness, boredom, etc). This figure is much lower than the OECD average of 80% and makes Turkey one of the unhappiest countries in the OECD.

Indicators

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Safety

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Key Findings

Personal security is a core element for the well-being of individuals, and largely reflects the risks of people being physically assaulted or falling victim to other types of crime. Across the OECD, assault rates have generally declined in the past five years. In Turkey, 5.0% of people reported falling victim to assault over the previous 12 months, higher than the OECD average of 4.0%. Men are more likely than women to be victims of assault, with a difference in assault rates of around 3%.

The homicide rate (the number of murders per 100,000 inhabitants) is a more reliable measure of a country’s safety level because, unlike other crimes, murders are usually always reported to the police. According to the latest OECD data, Turkey’s murder rate has decreased from 5.6 to 3.3, and is now only slightly higher than the OECD average of 2.1. In Turkey, men are far more likely to be murdered than women, with the homicide rate for men at 5.3 compared with 1.2 for women.

Fear of crime is another important indicator as it can constrain behaviour, restrict freedom and threaten the foundation of communities. Despite a general reduction in assault rates in the past five years, in many OECD countries feelings of security have declined. In Turkey, 58% of people feel safe walking alone at night, lower than the OECD average of 67%. While men are at a greater risk of being victims of assaults and violent crimes, women report lower feelings of security than men . This has been explained by a greater fear of sexual attacks, the feeling they must also protect their children and their concern that they may be seen as partially responsible .

Social status also has an impact on victimisation rates and perception of security. People with higher income and higher education usually report higher feelings of security and face lower risks of crime. This can be explained by the fact they can afford better security and are less exposed to criminal activity such as youth gangs or drug smuggling. In Turkey, nevertheless, the assault rate is 2.7% higher for the top 20% than for the bottom 20% of the population.

Indicators

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Work-Life Balance

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Key Findings

Finding a suitable balance between work and life is a challenge for all workers, especially working parents. Some couples would like to have (more) children, but do not see how they could afford to stop working. Other parents are happy with the number of children in their family, but would like to work more. This is a challenge to governments because if parents cannot achieve their desired work/life balance, not only is their welfare lowered but so is development in the country.

People spend one-tenth to one-fifth of their time on unpaid work . The distribution of tasks within the family is still influenced by gender roles: men are more likely to spend more hours in paid work, while women spend longer on unpaid domestic work.  Men in Turkey, spend 116 minutes per day cooking, cleaning or caring, lower than the OECD average of 131 minutes and less than a third as long as Turkish women who spend 377 minutes per day on average on domestic work, one of the highest differences in the OECD .

 

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Turkey work 1 877 hours a year, higher than the OECD average of 1 749 hours.

Indicators

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